So called ‘active substances’ (A.S.) which are allowed in organic production are regularly criticized for different reasons. Previously, although permitted in organic farming, some substances were not approved under EU general plant protection products regulations; they were removed due to their toxicity or other characteristics (persistence, broad spectrum). Recent approbations under different new Articles of the EC regulation 1107/2009 gave rise to substances granted without maximum residue limits. We have previously described ‘approved basic substance’ (Art. 23) as potential candidates for organic farming; here we describe low-risk substances (Art. 22) as new implements for substitution of controversial organic biopesticides and consequently as candidates for substitution (Art. 24).

Organic farming is frequently associated with claims of more labour requirements than conventional. However, there is a fragmented knowledge about labour use on organic farms in terms of workload, nature and quality of employment provided. In the context of a growing organic demand and a need for more farmers to convert to reach policy targets set by many EU governments, it seems crucial to understand labour trends on organic farms and to what extent labour requirements may hinder the adoption of the organic methods. This paper presents a review of mainly European literature published since 2000. Studies presenting results by farm type usually indicate higher labour use per hectare on organic than conventional arable farms, whereas similar or lower labour use is reported on organic livestock farms, and the results are mixed for other farm types. We have identified in the existing literature two broad dimensions directly related with labour use, which need to be considered in comparative studies, namely farm structure (including farm type, but also farm size and diversification activities), and technical efficiency. These two broad dimensions give us insights into some more specific factors affecting labour use, and how labour is related with productivity and technical efficiency. Overall it appears that claims that labour requirements represent a concrete obstacle to the adoption of the organic methods need to be treated with caution, and more research is needed to understand the role of labour in farmers’ decision to convert to organic farming. The review of the nature and quality of employment indicates positive health effects related to higher satisfaction and lower exposure to pesticides in organic agriculture as the most important advantages for farm workers. Overall, there is limited research on whether the organic sector provides better opportunities in terms of job prospects, wages and employment of women.