This study employed Schwartz's basic value theory and the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) to elucidate environmentally sustainable tourist behaviour (ESTB) among Muslim tourists in Indonesia. Two central inquiries were examined. Firstly, the impact of intrapersonal environmental and non-environmental values on the ESTB of Muslim tourists was scrutinised. Secondly, the mediating role of environmental attitude (EA) on these intrapersonal values towards ESTB in Muslim-friendly destinations in Indonesia was assessed. A cross-sectional survey, conducted in June and July 2022, collected data from 300 Muslim tourists at Muslim-friendly destinations in Indonesia. Participants, aged 17 and above, were selected through a purposive sampling approach; they had obtained a CHSE certificate in Malang during the transition from epidemic to the new normal era and had visited at least one of the 26 Muslim-friendly tourist spots. Analysis using the Structural Equation Model (SEM) revealed that while environmental knowledge (EK) and attitudes positively influenced ESTB, environmental concern (EC) and religious value (RGV) did not demonstrate a direct impact. Moreover, it was discerned that EA played a significant mediating role between RGV, EC, EK, and environmentally sustainable behaviours. It was further observed that individuals endorsing egoistic values typically exhibited weaker pro-environmental beliefs and were less inclined towards pro-environmental actions. Conversely, those with altruistic values displayed stronger pro-environmental beliefs, consequently impacting their environmental sustainability behaviour (ESB) in Muslim-friendly tourist destinations.

This study presents a comprehensive analysis of the influence of defense expenditures on the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in Turkey from 1974 to 2021. Defense spending, crucial for national security, often diverges from regular civic investments such as education, healthcare, and transportation. The significance of these expenditures becomes evident in times of international tension, terrorist threats, and warfare. Globally, defense budgets are escalating, and Turkey, a North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) member, is no exception. Recent trends show a decline in Turkey's public defense spending, with current levels lower than in the 1960s yet higher than the NATO average during 2014-2021. Concurrently, private sector investment in the defense industry has risen, underscoring Turkey's involvement in global defense dynamics. This research adopts the Autoregressive Distributed Lag (ARDL) bounds test and the Toda-Yamamoto causality test to scrutinize the long-term and causal relationships between defense spending and economic growth. The ARDL bounds test reveals a long-term negative cointegration relationship, while the Toda-Yamamoto test indicates a unidirectional causal relationship from defense expenditures to GDP at a 10% significance level. These findings affirm the Neoclassical economic theory's postulation of a negative impact of defense spending on growth. Despite this, the paper argues for the necessity of sustained defense expenditures in Turkey, given its unique historical and geopolitical context. The study navigates through various theoretical perspectives, notably the Keynesian and neoliberal approaches, and their specific adaptations in defense economics: military Keynesianism and private military services. It critically assesses these frameworks, integrating their critiques into the analysis. The study contributes to the discourse on defense economics by providing empirical evidence from a critical NATO member, balancing the theoretical debate with practical insights from Turkey's experience. This dual approach, combining empirical analysis with theoretical exploration, offers a nuanced understanding of the complex interplay between defense spending and economic growth, particularly in geopolitically sensitive regions.