Urban Transport Infrastructure and Mobility Challenges in Tier-II Indian Cities: A Case Study of Kalaburagi, Karnataka

An essential element of sustainable development in cities is infrastructure that allows for urban mobility, especially for cities with rapid growth in the Global South. While urban populations increase and economic activity increases, the necessity for efficient, safe, and inclusive mobility networks grows more important [1]. Indian cities, in particular, confront major obstacles in reducing traffic congestion, preserving infrastructure, and offering accessible transportation facilities. Such challenges are exacerbated by unplanned urban development, obsolete transportation networks, and insufficient policy enforcement [2], [3].

The Indian demographic journey through the last sixty years has seen enormous societal and financial upheavals, including healthcare. From tremendous growth in population during the mid-twentieth century to the most recent downturn, these changes have far-reaching ramifications for both policy and planning [4], [5].

• 1960: Population was approximately 445 million. High birth rates and decreasing mortality due to early healthcare interventions led to a population boom.

• 1960–1995: The population as a whole grew at an average annual pace of over 2%. Medical advancements, inadequate use of contraceptives, and societal preferences for larger families are major contributing factors.

• 1995: The population reached around 930 million.

• 1996–2019: Growth slowed to between 1–2% annually. Urbanization, rising female literacy, and improved family planning access contributed to this decline.

• 2020: For the first time, the population growth rate fell below 1% (around 0.98%).

• 2022: The growth rate further declined to 0.68%, the lowest ever recorded.

• 2025 (Projected): India’s population is projected to reach approximately 1.45 billion, maintaining its position as the world’s most populous country.

Figure 1 illustrates the changes in India’s total population and population growth rate from 1960 to 2025. Over this period, the total population increased substantially, while the population growth rate showed an overall declining trend. These contrasting patterns indicate that although India's population has continued to grow, the pace of growth has gradually slowed. The figure therefore provides a clear representation of India’s demographic transition during the study period.

Kalaburagi, formerly known as Gulbarga, is located in northeastern Karnataka and serves as the administrative headquarters of Kalaburagi district and an important urban center in the Hyderabad-Karnataka, now Kalyana-Karnataka, region [6]. Historically, the city was the capital of the Bahamani Sultanate and was later incorporated into Hyderabad State under the Nizams before becoming part of Mysore State, now Karnataka, after Indian independence. Over the past several decades, Kalaburagi has experienced substantial population growth and urban expansion. Its population increased from approximately 80,000 in 1951 to about 200,000 in 1981, 310,000 in 1991, 430,000 in 2001, and 543,147 in 2011, while recent estimates place the population at approximately 660,000 in 2023, with a projected population of around 750,000 by 2031 (Table 1 and Figure 2) [7], [8], [9].

Between 1991 and 2001 alone, the population increased by approximately 39%, from about 310,000 to 430,000. Census data indicate that Kalaburagi has experienced substantial population growth over recent decades, although its decadal growth rate has gradually declined over time [8]. This sustained demographic expansion has strengthened the city’s role as a regional center for administration, trade, healthcare, and education, while also intensifying pressure on infrastructure and public services. A relatively large working-age population may provide opportunities for economic growth if employment and skill development keep pace, but continued urbanization also increases demand for housing, transport, water, energy, food, and other essential services, while placing greater stress on environmental resources.

At the same time, the gradual decline in the population growth rate may indicate a longer-term demographic transition toward an aging population, which could require additional social and welfare planning in the future. Continued urban growth and likely expansion into peri-urban areas also create important implications for land use, infrastructure provision, and mobility planning. These demographic and spatial trends provide an important context for the present study, as rising population and urban expansion are likely to place increasing pressure on Kalaburagi’s road network, pedestrian infrastructure, public transport services, and overall urban mobility system.

Rural-to-urban migration and continued spatial expansion are important features of Kalaburagi’s recent urban development [10], [11]. In 2024, the Karnataka state government announced plans to develop Kalaburagi into a smart city, alongside broader regional development initiatives aimed at improving urban infrastructure and supporting the development of the Kalyana-Karnataka region [12].

As the largest urban hub in the Kalyana-Karnataka region, Kalaburagi serves as an important regional center for trade, education, healthcare, and administration. Its continued population growth and urban expansion have strengthened its role as an important Tier-II city with increasing regional influence [7], [8].

This study investigates the interaction between urban development and transportation infrastructure in Kalaburagi. Since the majority of Indian urban mobility studies concentrate on megacities such as Delhi, Mumbai, and Bengaluru, the present study addresses an important research gap concerning Tier-II cities [13], [14]. By examining traffic patterns, public transport availability, and infrastructure conditions, the study broadens our understanding of equitable and environmentally friendly mobility in mid-sized Indian cities [3], [15]. Using an integrated methodology that includes field surveys, stakeholder inputs, and secondary data, the results provide planners and legislators with practical advice on how to increase mobility, lessen environmental effects, and enhance quality of life.

Urban mobility has become one of the most urgent issues confronting rapidly urbanizing cities worldwide, driven by population growth, increasing motorization and travel demand, and inadequate infrastructure expansion, which collectively contribute to traffic congestion, environmental degradation, safety risks, and inequitable access to transport services [16], [17]. These challenges are particularly acute in Global South cities, where urban expansion frequently surpasses transportation planning and investment [3], [13]. In India, while metropolitan cities have received substantial policy and research attention, significant gaps persist in Tier-II cities, where mobility systems remain underdeveloped despite rapid urban expansion and growing regional economic importance [14], [16]. Cities such as Kalaburagi, Karnataka, continue to experience fragmented road networks, poor pedestrian infrastructure, weak public transport systems, limited multimodal integration, and increasing traffic congestion, yet they remain underrepresented in empirical transport research. There is a significant research gap in the limited availability of evidence-based analytical frameworks that simultaneously integrate traffic flow performance, pedestrian dependency, safety conflicts, and infrastructure diagnostics for medium-sized Indian cities. Existing studies largely focus on isolated congestion indicators or single-mode assessments, with limited attention to the interaction between pedestrian and vehicular systems [3], [18]. By investigating the relationship between urban transportation infrastructure and urban mobility issues in Kalaburagi, this study addresses this gap using an integrated mixed-method framework incorporating traffic volume count (TVC) surveys, passenger car unit (PCU)-based assessment, volume-to-capacity (V/C) ratio analysis, modal share analysis, and the pedestrian--vehicular conflict index (PVCI). The study aims to assess congestion levels, evaluate pedestrian dependency and safety, identify infrastructure and connectivity gaps, and develop a sustainable mobility framework. This study contributes by introducing PVCI and an integrated analytical framework, offering a novel, evidence-based, and scalable planning model for Tier-II Indian cities and comparable urban contexts in the Global South.

Figure 3 presents the conceptual framework used to investigate the relationship between urban transport system deficiencies and mobility outcomes in Kalaburagi, a rapidly growing Tier-II city. The framework is structured as a causal flow model comprising independent variables, mediating variables, dependent outcomes, and policy intervention levers, consistent with integrated urban transport planning approaches [19], [20].

At the top of the framework, the independent variable represents key urban transport infrastructure deficits, including poor road network quality, inadequate sidewalks and pedestrian crossings, weak non-motorized transport (NMT) facilities, low public transport accessibility, and limited multimodal integration. These structural deficiencies are widely recognized as primary constraints affecting urban mobility performance in developing cities [3], [19].

These deficiencies are hypothesized to directly influence two major mediating dimensions: traffic performance and pedestrian mobility and safety conditions. Traffic performance is assessed using standard traffic engineering measures, including TVC, PCU-based traffic volume, V/C ratio, delay, and congestion intensity, forming the basis of Hypothesis 1 (H1) [19], [21].

Simultaneously, the framework evaluates modal share, pedestrian dependency, pedestrian--vehicular conflict levels, and safety risks using the PVCI, supporting Hypothesis 2 (H2). The integration of pedestrian safety and conflict analysis aligns with contemporary sustainable mobility research emphasizing non-motorized transport and inclusive street design [3], [22].

These mediating variables collectively determine the dependent variable, namely “sustainable mobility outcomes,” which include reduced congestion, improved walkability, enhanced NMT accessibility, greater public transport integration, and safer pedestrian movement. Such outcomes are consistent with global sustainable urban transport goals and frameworks [17], [20].

At the bottom, the model incorporates integrated multimodal interventions—such as walkability enhancement, cycling infrastructure development, transit hub integration, last-mile connectivity improvements, and institutional coordination—as key policy levers. These interventions are expected to positively influence sustainable mobility outcomes, forming the basis of Hypothesis 3 (H3) [23], [24].

Overall, the framework provides a systematic and evidence-based analytical model linking infrastructure deficits with measurable urban mobility performance indicators and policy-oriented planning outcomes. It contributes to bridging the research gap in medium-sized Indian cities by integrating traffic engineering metrics with pedestrian-focused safety and accessibility analysis.

Road transportation is essential to both economic activity and urban mobility. At the same time, cities worldwide increasingly face congestion-related challenges that negatively affect public health, environmental sustainability, and economic efficiency [20], [25]. Research on sustainable urban transport demonstrates that these challenges are not confined to megacities but are also evident in small and medium-sized cities, where planning capacity, governance frameworks, and integrated transport policies are often weaker [3], [13].

In India, rapid urbanization combined with the continued dominance of motorized transport has contributed to inadequate NMT infrastructure, poor walkability, increased safety concerns, and reduced accessibility, particularly in Tier-II cities [14], [15]. These challenges are further intensified by transport-related inequalities, as lower-income and socially disadvantaged groups disproportionately bear the negative externalities of congestion, including longer travel times, limited access to urban opportunities, and greater exposure to air pollution [17], [26].

To support evidence-based planning, recent studies have highlighted the importance of integrating land-use and transportation data, particularly in data-scarce urban contexts [27], [28]. More broadly, international research suggests that urban over-concentration, poorly coordinated spatial growth, and weak regional planning frameworks can further exacerbate congestion and environmental stress [17], [30].

Recent literature increasingly conceptualizes congestion as a dynamic and multidimensional phenomenon shaped by complex interactions among transport infrastructure, travel demand, environmental conditions, and governance systems [17], [30]. Data-driven mobility platforms, such as Intelligent Traffic Management Systems (ITMS), have enhanced traffic-flow monitoring by enabling real-time assessment and adaptive decision-making in urban transport networks [31], [32].

Noise-related externalities represent another important but often underexamined dimension of urban congestion. Empirical studies in Indian and international contexts have documented persistently high traffic noise levels along major urban corridors and have associated prolonged exposure with adverse health effects, including cardiovascular disorders, cognitive impairment, and psychological stress [33], [34], [35].

Contemporary research also treats congestion as a network-level process influenced by both recurrent and non-recurrent disruptions, including demand–capacity imbalances, traffic incidents, adverse weather conditions, infrastructure maintenance, and special events, as illustrated in Figure 4 [36]. These perspectives emphasize the stochastic and nonlinear nature of congestion and its propagation across urban transport networks.

Advances in traffic prediction and modelling have further contributed to congestion analysis. For example, particle-filtering approaches based on the Lighthill–Whitham–Richards (LWR) traffic-flow model have shown potential for improving traffic-state estimation, particularly in sensor-scarce or data-limited networks [37], [38].

Peak-hour congestion continues to intensify as mobility demand grows, driven by factors such as insufficient public transport use, rising private vehicle ownership, and inadequate road capacity [17], [39]. These pressures reduce accessibility, increase travel time and fuel consumption, and contribute to environmental degradation, generating substantial economic and social costs. Evidence from contexts such as Egypt further demonstrates that persistent congestion and travel delays can reduce productivity and adversely affect quality of life [30], [40].

Recent studies therefore emphasize the need for advanced mobility solutions, particularly intelligent transport systems (ITS) that integrate big data, 5G communication, sensor networks, and artificial intelligence (AI) to improve traffic management and transport-system efficiency [41], [42]. Research also indicates that economic growth, expanding commuter flows, and increasing vehicle ownership can contribute to higher transport-related emissions [43], while micro-level congestion detection and emission-reduction strategies, including adaptive traffic signals and speed optimization, provide potential mitigation pathways [44], [45].

Autonomous vehicles may also contribute to reductions in congestion and energy consumption, although concerns regarding safety and data security remain [46]. Overall, the literature demonstrates that congestion is not merely a traffic-engineering problem but a broader urban-systems challenge requiring integrated, data-driven, and sustainability-oriented interventions. Such approaches are particularly important in rapidly urbanizing regions and developing countries such as India, where modernized and sustainable transportation systems are needed to support equitable and resilient urban development [17], [26].

Transportation infrastructure forms a fundamental component of urban development by facilitating the movement of people and goods and providing access to essential opportunities and services, including employment, education, healthcare, and social activities. By connecting residential areas with commercial, industrial, and educational zones, transport networks also influence urban form, land-use patterns, and the spatial distribution of economic opportunities [17], [26].

According to Rode et al. [47], strategically integrating urban transport policies into broader urban planning frameworks can promote inclusive economic development and improve quality of life. Such integration enables coordinated planning across transportation, housing, environmental management, and social inclusion. Efficient public transport systems, for example, can reduce commuting time and travel costs while improving accessibility, particularly for low-income and socially disadvantaged groups that depend heavily on affordable transport services [3], [13].

However, the benefits of integrated transport planning are not uniformly distributed across urban areas, particularly in countries such as India, where transport investment and research attention have historically been concentrated in major metropolitan cities, while smaller and medium-sized cities often face comparatively weaker institutional and financial capacity and remain underrepresented in transport research and policy discourse [18], [48].

India's urban transport systems face multiple challenges, including persistent traffic congestion, declining road safety, inadequate public transport services, and insufficient infrastructure for non-motorized transport. These problems are particularly pronounced in rapidly growing cities, where the development of transport infrastructure and public transit services often fails to keep pace with population growth and increasing travel demand. Collectively, these challenges adversely affect transport efficiency, environmental quality, accessibility, and social equity [14], [17].

Increasing motorization has been identified as one of the major causes of urban mobility inefficiency in India. Private vehicle ownership has grown substantially in recent decades as a result of rising incomes and greater access to motorized transport. However, this increase has not been accompanied by proportional improvements in road infrastructure or public transport systems. According to Jain and Tiwari [15], this imbalance contributes to longer travel times, increased vehicular emissions, and greater road-safety risks.

In addition to infrastructure deficiencies, urban transport governance in India is constrained by institutional fragmentation and limited coordination among responsible agencies. Urban transport functions are often distributed across multiple organizations, including municipal bodies, state transport departments, development authorities, and traffic police, with overlapping responsibilities and limited institutional coordination. Verma and Ramanayya [49] highlight that such fragmented governance structures can result in disjointed planning, inefficient resource allocation, and delays in infrastructure implementation. For example, road maintenance, public transport operations, and traffic regulation may be managed by separate agencies, creating gaps in accountability and service delivery.

The development of integrated multimodal transport systems, which are essential for sustainable urban mobility, is further constrained by the absence of unified metropolitan transport authorities in many cities. Weak institutional coordination and inadequate planning frameworks can restrict investment in public transport, reinforce dependence on private vehicles, and inadequately address the mobility needs of vulnerable groups, including women, older people, and low-income populations [17], [26].

In response to these challenges, urban transport researchers have advocated for integrated metropolitan transport authorities with clearly defined planning, financing, coordination, and implementation responsibilities. Data-driven decision-making, participatory planning, and multi-stakeholder collaboration are also increasingly regarded as important components of equitable and sustainable mobility planning [3], [13]. Experiences from cities such as Ahmedabad and Pune demonstrate the potential of coordinated and context-sensitive bus rapid transit (BRT) planning to improve urban mobility and accessibility [50].

Public transportation is widely regarded as a fundamental component of sustainable urban mobility because it provides a more environmentally sustainable, economically efficient, and socially inclusive alternative to private vehicle use [17], [51]. Well-planned public transport networks can reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and traffic congestion while improving access to employment, education, healthcare, and other social and economic opportunities [20]. However, the availability and quality of public transport in India remain inadequate in many cities, particularly outside major metropolitan areas [13], [14].

In many Indian cities, limited network coverage, irregular services, congestion, inadequate infrastructure, and poor service reliability reduce the attractiveness and effectiveness of public transport. Vulnerable and low-income groups, including women, people with disabilities, and older people, are particularly affected because they often depend heavily on affordable and reliable transport services for their daily mobility needs. Kakar et al. [52] highlight that inadequate access to affordable, reliable, and good-quality transport can reinforce mobility inequities and socioeconomic disadvantage.

The situation is particularly critical in medium-sized and rapidly growing cities, where investment in mass-transit infrastructure often fails to keep pace with urban expansion. Such cities may face financial, institutional, planning, and technical capacity constraints that limit the development of well-integrated formal transport systems. Consequently, informal and semi-formal modes, including motorcycles and shared autorickshaws, often play an important role in meeting mobility demand, although poorly regulated services may also contribute to safety, congestion, and environmental concerns [3].

Kakar et al. [52] highlight that inadequate transport access can restrict access to socioeconomic opportunities and resources, thereby reinforcing patterns of mobility inequality. In cities with fragmented transport systems, unequal access to mobility may disproportionately disadvantage lower-income groups, while households with greater financial resources are better able to rely on private vehicles or live in better-connected locations.

Addressing these challenges requires more than simply expanding public transport networks. A comprehensive strategy should integrate multiple transport modes, improve first- and last-mile connectivity, strengthen service reliability and accessibility, and provide targeted support for underserved populations. Urban transport planning should also align with broader objectives of social equity and environmental sustainability so that public transport functions not only as a means of mobility but also as a catalyst for equitable urban development [17], [26].

Urban traffic congestion is a major environmental and social challenge whose impacts extend beyond transportation performance alone. Persistent congestion not only causes travel delays and economic inefficiencies but also contributes to environmental degradation and adverse public health outcomes [17], [25].

One of the most significant environmental consequences of congestion is increased vehicle emissions resulting from frequent acceleration, deceleration, and idling. Stop-and-go traffic can increase fuel consumption and emissions of GHGs and air pollutants, including carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx), and particulate matter (PM) [53]. These emissions contribute to deteriorating urban air quality, climate change, and broader environmental degradation [25].

In Indian cities, the environmental impacts of urban transport are further aggravated by the continued use of older and poorly maintained vehicles, inadequate vehicle inspection systems, and weak enforcement of emission-control regulations [17], [54]. Insufficient investment in green transport infrastructure has also constrained the transition toward more sustainable mobility options, including pedestrian-friendly infrastructure, cycling facilities, and electric public transport [3].

Congestion also generates substantial social and public health impacts. Long-term exposure to traffic-related air pollution has been associated with respiratory and cardiovascular diseases and increased health risks, particularly among children, older people, and populations living near heavily congested roads [25]. In addition, traffic-related noise can contribute to sleep disturbance, psychological stress, and reduced well-being [34].

From a social-equity perspective, low-income and marginalized populations may be disproportionately affected because they are more likely to live in highly congested and polluted areas and often have fewer alternative mobility options [26]. Urban congestion can therefore reinforce existing environmental and social inequalities. Addressing these challenges requires integrated urban mobility policies that combine emission-reduction measures, sustainable transport development, regulatory enforcement, and inclusive urban design [17].

Although research on urban transport in major Indian metropolitan areas has expanded considerably, medium-sized cities such as Kalaburagi remain comparatively under-researched [18]. Existing studies provide limited evidence regarding the specific mobility patterns, infrastructure constraints, and governance challenges faced by rapidly growing Tier-II cities. Kodukula et al. [55] highlight the need for more systematic urban transport data collection and mobility assessment in Indian cities, including Kalaburagi.

Kalaburagi illustrates many of the transport challenges experienced by rapidly growing Tier-II and Tier-III Indian cities. Despite its strategic regional role and continued population growth, the city faces limited public transport connectivity and insufficient investment in sustainable mobility infrastructure [55]. Key challenges include poor first- and last-mile connectivity, dependence on private vehicles, inadequate NMT facilities, including pedestrian pathways and cycling infrastructure, and poorly regulated paratransit services such as shared autorickshaws and taxis.

These structural deficiencies can reinforce social and spatial inequalities and adversely affect urban livability. Low-income populations, particularly those living in peri-urban and fringe areas, may experience both physical and economic exclusion because of limited and unaffordable mobility options [26]. Unequal access to transport can therefore undermine broader objectives of equitable and sustainable urban development.

Transportation infrastructure also plays an important role in shaping urban development and social equity. Tiwari [3] argues that well-designed transport systems can influence land-use patterns, improve access to employment and essential services, and enhance overall urban livability. Conversely, inadequate transport planning and excessive dependence on private vehicles can contribute to congestion, environmental degradation, and socioeconomic disparities [17].

When effectively planned and managed, public transport can promote inclusive urban development by encouraging modal shifts away from private vehicles, improving accessibility, and reducing environmental pressures. As emphasized by Tiwari [3], Indian cities therefore require context-specific, sustainable, and equitable transport strategies that respond to local mobility conditions.

The Kalaburagi case consequently highlights the need for stronger institutional capacity, greater public investment in multimodal transport infrastructure, and context-specific policy interventions. Such measures are essential for achieving more equitable, efficient, and sustainable urban mobility outcomes.

Table 2 summarizes selected literature on urban transport, congestion, and walkability. The reviewed studies demonstrate how rapid urbanization, increasing dependence on motorized vehicles, inadequate transport infrastructure, and weak institutional coordination can contribute to congestion and accessibility problems. The table also summarizes research on pedestrian safety, walkability, and people-oriented transport planning.

{ \renewcommand{\arraystretch}{0.9} \setlength{\tabcolsep}{3pt} \begin{longtable}{ >{\centering\arraybackslash}m{0.13\textwidth} >{\centering\arraybackslash}m{0.06\textwidth} >{\centering\arraybackslash}m{0.13\textwidth} >{\centering\arraybackslash}m{0.17\textwidth} >{\centering\arraybackslash}m{0.22\textwidth} >{\centering\arraybackslash}m{0.21\textwidth} } \caption{Literature review of urban transport, congestion, and walkability} \label{tab2} \\ \toprule Author(s) & Year & Source & Study Focus & Key Findings/Contribution & Relevance to the Kalaburagi Case \\ \midrule \endfirsthead \midrule \endhead Pojani and Stead [2] & 2015 & Sustainability & Sustainable urban transport in developing cities & Reviews transport strategies for smaller and medium-sized developing cities, including public transport, NMT, and land-use measures & Provides a broad framework for context-sensitive sustainable transport planning in Kalaburagi \\ Marisamynathan and Vedagiri [22] & 2019 & Journal of Modern Transportation & Pedestrian level of service and pedestrian--vehicle interaction & Develops and validates a perception-based pedestrian level-of-service model for signalized intersections under Indian mixed-traffic conditions & Directly informs assessment of pedestrian safety and pedestrian--vehicular interaction at major activity nodes \\ Joshi et al. [56] & 2021 & Transport Policy & Accessibility constraints in Indian urban mobility & Identifies infrastructural, spatial, and social barriers that affect access to urban transport in Delhi & Provides comparative evidence for assessing accessibility and inclusion constraints in Kalaburagi \\ Kumar and Ross [57] & 2006 & World Transport Policy & Practice & Pedestrianization in a commercial urban area & Examines the effects of pedestrian-oriented street interventions on commercial activity and urban livability & Provides comparative evidence for pedestrian-oriented improvements in commercial areas \\ Rastogi and Krishna Rao [58] & 2009 & Journal of Transportation Engineering & Access to suburban rail transit in Mumbai & Identifies socioeconomic and access-related factors influencing how commuters reach public transport & Provides insights relevant to first- and last-mile connectivity and transit accessibility \\ \midrule Tiwari [59] & 2002 & Cities & Urban transport priorities and socioeconomic diversity in Delhi & Emphasizes the integration of public transport and NMT to meet the mobility needs of diverse socioeconomic groups & Supports equitable and context-sensitive transport planning in Indian cities \\ Malayath and Verma [60] & 2013 & Research in Transportation Economics & Travel-demand modelling for sustainable transport policy & Reviews limitations of conventional models in India and discusses activity-based approaches for evaluating sustainable transport policies & Provides a policy-evaluation perspective for integrated mobility planning \\ Kumar et al. [61] & 2008 & World Bank Report & Urban transport constraints in developing-city contexts & Reviews institutional, public transport, pedestrian, and traffic-management challenges in rapidly growing African cities & Provides comparative evidence on institutional fragmentation and mobility constraints in developing-city contexts \\ Wang [62] & 2013 & Transportation Research Record & Built environment and travel behaviour & Examines relationships between built-environment characteristics and travel behaviour using structural equation modelling & Provides a conceptual basis for linking urban form, accessibility, and mobility patterns \\ Das and Maitra [63] & 2024 & Transport Policy & Prioritization of pedestrian infrastructure improvements in India & Identifies priority pedestrian-infrastructure attributes using perception data and fuzzy clustering & Provides a methodological basis for prioritizing pedestrian-infrastructure improvements \\ Nag and Goswami [64] & 2024 & Asian Transport Studies & Pedestrian preferences for link and network attributes in Indian cities & Shows that both street-level and network-level attributes influence perceived walkability, with particular relevance to medium and smaller Indian cities & Supports integrated assessment of sidewalk quality, continuity, accessibility, and traffic exposure \\ Cheranchery et al. [65] & 2024 & Transport Policy & Walkability and pedestrian-infrastructure intervention priorities in Kerala & Identifies sidewalk, lighting, crossing, traffic-volume, and accessibility deficiencies and develops a method for prioritizing improvement areas & Provides a transferable approach for identifying and prioritizing walkability deficiencies in Kalaburagi \\ Aromal and Naseer [66] & 2022 & Journal of Urban Design & Prioritization of pedestrian-facility improvements in Indian cities & Ranks influential sidewalk-improvement factors and identifies lighting, maintenance, cleanliness, and crossing facilities as major priorities & Provides a structured basis for prioritizing pedestrian-infrastructure improvements in Kalaburagi \\ \bottomrule \multicolumn{6}{c}{ \parbox{0.95\textwidth}{ \centering Note: NMT = non-motorized transport. The relevance statements indicate how the cited studies inform the present Kalaburagi case and do not imply that the cited studies directly examined Kalaburagi. }} \\ \end{longtable} }

Existing literature has extensively examined urban congestion, modal choice, pedestrian safety, and transport accessibility; however, important research gaps remain in the context of Tier-II Indian cities and other rapidly growing urban centres in the Global South [3-13]. Three gaps are particularly relevant to the present study.

First, empirical research on Tier-II Indian cities remains comparatively limited, particularly in contexts where rapid urban expansion has not been accompanied by commensurate transport infrastructure development [14-17]. Existing studies predominantly focus on major metropolitan areas, leaving medium-sized cities such as Kalaburagi comparatively underrepresented despite their growing demographic and economic importance.

Second, conventional traffic assessments commonly rely on measures such as TVC, PCU-based traffic volume, and the V/C ratio to evaluate vehicular traffic conditions [21]. However, comparatively limited attention has been given to integrating these traffic-performance measures with pedestrian-focused indicators that capture pedestrian--vehicular interactions and safety conditions under heterogeneous traffic environments [3-22].

Third, existing analytical approaches often assess NMT, pedestrian safety, traffic congestion, and multimodal accessibility as separate dimensions rather than as interconnected components of urban mobility [15-65]. This fragmented approach limits the ability to evaluate how infrastructure deficiencies simultaneously affect vehicular performance, pedestrian movement, safety, and accessibility.

Accordingly, a research gap remains in the development and application of integrated analytical approaches that simultaneously evaluate traffic congestion, modal dependence, pedestrian--vehicular conflict, and infrastructure deficiencies in Tier-II cities such as Kalaburagi. To address this gap, the present study incorporates the PVCI within an integrated analytical framework combining traffic-performance assessment, NMT assessment, and infrastructure evaluation.

Accordingly, the study is guided by the following hypotheses:

H1: Major activity nodes characterized by greater urban transport infrastructure deficiencies exhibit higher congestion levels and V/C ratios.,H2: Locations with poorer pedestrian and NMT infrastructure and lower public transport accessibility exhibit greater pedestrian--vehicular conflict intensity.,H3: Locations with weaker multimodal integration exhibit poorer sustainable mobility outcomes.

The study focuses on Kalaburagi City, a rapidly growing urban area in northeastern Karnataka characterized by mixed land use, increasing vehicular activity, and growing pressure on its transport infrastructure. Five core traffic observation nodes were selected for detailed urban mobility assessment based on traffic intensity, pedestrian activity, commercial significance, and proximity to major transport facilities. The selected locations were Shah Bazaar, Super Market Circle, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel (SVP) Circle, Station Road, and the Kalaburagi Railway Station Area. These locations represent major commercial and transport activity areas with substantial pedestrian--vehicular interaction, making them suitable for assessing traffic conditions, pedestrian movement, and urban mobility challenges.

Figure 5 presents the geographical context of Kalaburagi City and the five selected study nodes. Panel A shows the regional location of Kalaburagi within India and Karnataka, while Panel B presents the city-level study area, including the city boundary, major road network, railway corridor, central business district (CBD), and survey nodes. Panel C provides an enlarged view of the CBD and core commercial area, highlighting the spatial relationship among the selected observation locations. Together, these maps establish the geographical and infrastructural context for the subsequent traffic-volume, congestion, and pedestrian--vehicular conflict analyses.

To provide broader coverage of Kalaburagi's urban transport system, supplementary field observations were conducted beyond the five core observation nodes shown in Figure 5. These observations covered additional commercial, public transport, arterial, and peripheral locations. Accordingly, the broader field investigation encompassed nine survey areas across the city:

Super Market Circle: A major commercial area characterized by intensive mixed traffic and pedestrian activity.,SVP Circle: A major urban intersection connecting important arterial roads.,Kalaburagi Railway Station Area: An important intercity transport node characterized by substantial pedestrian and vehicular activity.,Sedam Road and Ring Road Junctions: Major arterial and peripheral junction areas serving city-entry and city-exit traffic.,Main Bus Stand Vicinity: A major public transport activity area serving urban and regional travel.,Shah Bazaar and Market Areas: Dense commercial areas characterized by narrow road space and substantial pedestrian and two-wheeler activity.,Rama Mandir Circle: An important urban activity node serving local traffic movements.,Humnabad Ring Road Circle: A peripheral transport location characterized by substantial regional traffic movement.,Aland Ring Road Circle: A peripheral transport location providing connectivity between the city and surrounding regional routes.

An exploratory case-study design was adopted to systematically assess urban transport conditions in Kalaburagi. The research design integrates field-based traffic and pedestrian observations, infrastructure assessment, and secondary data analysis to examine mobility performance, accessibility, and transport-system constraints within the study area [67].

The study was organized into three analytical stages:

Identification and assessment of key transport issues: Traffic conditions, pedestrian movement, congestion patterns, and major mobility constraints were examined through field observations and classified traffic surveys.,Assessment of transport infrastructure and public transport conditions: Road characteristics, pedestrian facilities, non-motorized transport infrastructure, public transport accessibility, and major transport nodes were evaluated using field observations and available secondary data.,Assessment of planning and governance constraints: Relevant planning documents, institutional arrangements, and published policy information were reviewed to identify broader transport planning and coordination challenges affecting urban mobility in Kalaburagi.

These stages provided a structured basis for integrating quantitative traffic indicators with field-based infrastructure observations and contextual planning information.

This study adopted an integrated analytical framework to evaluate urban transport conditions in Kalaburagi. The framework comprises three complementary components: (i) spatial and infrastructure assessment, (ii) observed traffic-demand assessment, and (iii) pedestrian and NMT assessment. Together, these components enable a comprehensive evaluation of transport infrastructure, traffic patterns, accessibility, pedestrian conditions, and operational performance within the urban transport system [3-21].

The spatial and infrastructure assessment examines land-use characteristics, road hierarchy, road conditions, transport facilities, and major urban activity centres. The observed traffic-demand assessment evaluates classified traffic volumes, modal composition, directional traffic distribution, peak-hour demand, PCU-based traffic flow, and V/C ratios. These measures are used to identify locations experiencing high traffic demand and operational pressure at major intersections and corridors. The pedestrian and NMT assessment examines pedestrian volumes, footpath availability and continuity, pedestrian crossing facilities, cycling conditions, first- and last-mile connectivity, and pedestrian--vehicular interaction conditions. This component is particularly relevant in commercial areas, transport-hub surroundings, and other locations with substantial pedestrian activity [3-59].

Together, these three analytical components operationalize the conceptual framework presented in Figure 3 and provide an integrated basis for assessing existing urban transport conditions, identifying mobility and infrastructure constraints, and formulating appropriate planning and policy recommendations. The analytical approach draws on established urban transport assessment methods reported in previous studies [3-27] and considers the interrelationships among land use, traffic demand, pedestrian mobility, safety, and accessibility in a rapidly growing Tier-II city.

Primary traffic and pedestrian data were collected through manual classified TVC surveys and field observations at the selected study locations during the morning peak period (08:00--09:00 h). The observation period was selected to capture conditions of relatively high traffic demand and pedestrian activity and to provide a consistent basis for comparing traffic conditions across the surveyed locations.

Observed movements were classified into seven categories:

Two-wheelers: Motorcycles, scooters, and mopeds.,Cars: Private passenger vehicles.,Auto-rickshaws: Intermediate public transport vehicles.,Buses: Public and other passenger bus services.,Goods vehicles: Light goods vehicles and heavy goods vehicles.,Pedestrians: Persons walking along roads or footpaths or crossing roadways.,Cyclists: Bicycle users and other cycle-based non-motorized movements.

Traffic movements were recorded for the relevant directional approaches at each observation location. Pedestrian observations included pedestrian volumes together with field observations of footpath conditions, crossing facilities, roadside encroachments, and pedestrian--vehicular interaction conditions.

Secondary data, including land-use information, road network characteristics, planning documents, institutional information, and published transport statistics, were obtained from relevant government agencies and published literature to support the spatial, infrastructure, and planning assessments.

Traffic and mobility conditions were evaluated using a set of measures representing traffic demand, modal composition, directional distribution, mixed-traffic flow, congestion, and pedestrian--vehicular interaction.

The TVC data were used to quantify the total observed road-user movements during the survey period. The total observed movement volume was calculated by aggregating the classified road-user categories:

where, \(V_{\mathrm{total}}\) represents the total observed movement volume, \(V_i\) represents the observed volume of road-user category \(i\), and \(n\) denotes the number of observed road-user categories.

Higher values of \(V_{\mathrm{total}}\) indicate greater observed movement demand during the survey period and provide a basis for comparing demand intensity among the surveyed locations.

To diagnose modal imbalance and motorization bias, modal share percentages are computed as:

A dominance of two-wheelers and auto-rickshaws, coupled with low shares of formal public transport, reflects the informalization of mobility and inadequate last-mile connectivity in Kalaburagi. This pattern indicates weak multimodal integration, a common mobility challenge in rapidly growing Tier-II cities.

The directional distribution ratio (DDR) is used to quantify the proportion of observed vehicular traffic associated with each directional approach and to identify directional imbalances in traffic flow:

where, \(V_d\) represents the vehicular traffic volume observed in direction \(d\), and \(V_{\mathrm{veh,total}}\) represents the total vehicular volume observed across all directional approaches.

Higher directional distribution ratios indicate a greater concentration of traffic on a particular approach and can be used to identify directional imbalances and potential locations requiring further operational assessment.

Given the heterogeneous traffic composition typical of Indian cities, classified vehicle volumes were converted into PCU equivalents to obtain a standardized measure of traffic flow [21]:

where, \(Q_{\mathrm{PCU}}\) represents the total traffic flow expressed in PCU, \(V_i\) represents the observed volume of vehicle category \(i\), \(f_i\) denotes the corresponding PCU equivalency factor, and \(n\) represents the number of vehicle categories.

The PCU-based traffic flow provides a common basis for comparing heterogeneous vehicle streams and is subsequently used in the V/C assessment.

The V/C ratio is used to assess the relationship between observed traffic demand and the practical capacity of the corresponding road section or intersection approach [21]:

where, \(Q_{\mathrm{PCU}}\) represents the observed traffic flow expressed in PCU/h, and \(C\) represents the practical capacity of the corresponding road section or intersection approach, also expressed in PCU/h.

Higher V/C ratios indicate increasing traffic demand relative to available capacity, while values approaching or exceeding unity indicate highly congested or oversaturated operating conditions.

To assess the relative interaction between pedestrian and vehicular movements at the surveyed locations, the PVCI is calculated as:

where, \(P\) represents the observed pedestrian volume and \(V\) represents the corresponding vehicular volume during the same observation period.

The PVCI provides a relative measure of pedestrian presence in relation to vehicular traffic and is used together with field observations of footpath availability, crossing facilities, encroachments, and pedestrian movement conditions to assess potential pedestrian--vehicular interaction and safety concerns.

The collected traffic and pedestrian data were compiled and analysed using Microsoft Excel. Descriptive and comparative analyses were conducted for each surveyed location to characterize traffic demand, modal composition, directional traffic distribution, mixed-traffic conditions, congestion levels, and pedestrian--vehicular interactions.

The analysis included total observed traffic volume, modal share, directional distribution ratio, PCU-based traffic flow, V/C ratio, and PVCI. The calculated measures were compared across the surveyed locations to identify spatial variations in traffic intensity, operational pressure, modal composition, and pedestrian--vehicular interaction conditions.

The quantitative results were interpreted together with field observations of road geometry, pedestrian facilities, crossing conditions, roadside encroachments, public transport accessibility, and other infrastructure characteristics. This combined assessment was used to identify major mobility and infrastructure constraints and to support the development of context-specific transport planning recommendations.

Urban transport systems in mid-sized Indian cities such as Kalaburagi face multiple challenges that affect mobility, accessibility, safety, and environmental sustainability. These challenges are largely associated with rapid and often unplanned urban growth, increasing travel demand, and insufficient investment in transport infrastructure, which can exceed the capacity of municipal authorities to plan and manage efficient transport systems [14-17]. Institutional constraints, including limited technical capacity, fragmented governance structures, and inadequate financial resources, further intensify these difficulties [3].

Public transport systems in Kalaburagi, as in many Tier-II Indian cities, remain underdeveloped and are characterized by limited coverage, irregular services, and low reliability [13-55]. Inadequate urban bus services, poorly maintained pedestrian infrastructure, the absence of dedicated cycling facilities, and encroachment on pedestrian spaces significantly constrain inclusive and equitable mobility. Vulnerable groups, including women, older adults, and low-income populations, are particularly affected by these shortcomings [26-52].

Unplanned urban growth has also contributed to a mismatch between transport networks and land-use patterns, increasing dependence on private vehicles and contributing to traffic congestion, air pollution, and road safety risks [15]. In Kalaburagi, road infrastructure has not expanded at the same pace as population growth and urban development, resulting in congestion and unsafe traffic conditions, particularly around high-activity areas such as schools, markets, and railway stations.

Previous studies emphasize that addressing these challenges requires stronger institutional capacity, coordinated land-use and transport planning, and the promotion of equitable and environmentally sustainable mobility solutions [3-20]. These measures are particularly important in mid-sized cities, which often receive less policy and investment attention than major metropolitan areas despite experiencing rapid urban growth.

Accordingly, the case of Kalaburagi highlights the need for systemic interventions, including increased investment in transport infrastructure, improved public transport services, expansion of active mobility facilities for pedestrians and cyclists, and stronger inter-agency coordination. The following sections examine these issues in greater detail using specific examples and empirical evidence.

Urban road infrastructure in mid-sized cities such as Kalaburagi is often insufficient to accommodate increasing volumes of motorized and non-motorized traffic [14-17]. This limitation is primarily associated with historically narrow carriageways, inadequate provision for future traffic demand, and the absence of a clearly defined road hierarchy---including arterial, sub-arterial, collector, and local streets---which is essential for the efficient distribution of urban traffic [68].

As a result, existing road networks may be unable to support smooth traffic movement, particularly during peak periods. Sedam Road, one of the major arterial corridors in Kalaburagi, provides a representative example of these challenges, with congestion and traffic bottlenecks occurring under conditions of high traffic demand. Contributing factors include inadequate road geometry, encroachments by informal vendors and unauthorized structures, and the absence of an effective functional road hierarchy that could facilitate more efficient traffic distribution [3].

The situation is further aggravated by unregulated roadside parking and mixed land-use patterns, which increase conflict points between vehicles and pedestrians [15]. In addition, the lack of dedicated pedestrian pathways and cycling infrastructure along major corridors such as Sedam Road creates unsafe conditions for non-motorized users, who are often forced to share limited carriageway space with motorized traffic. These conditions reduce traffic efficiency and increase the potential for pedestrian--vehicular conflicts and road safety risks [15-59].

Figures~\ref{fig6} and~\ref{fig7} illustrate a typical segment of Sedam Road in Kalaburagi and highlight the effects of right-of-way (RoW) encroachments. The figures show how informal street vending, unauthorized commercial extensions, and on-street parking reduce the effective road width, obstruct pedestrian movement, and intensify traffic congestion. Such conditions adversely affect accessibility, safety, and walkability, particularly in high-activity areas such as intersections, markets, and institutional zones.

These encroachments not only constrain vehicular movement but also increase risks to pedestrians, especially in areas with high traffic intensity. The observed conditions indicate the presence of critical bottleneck segments that may require stronger regulatory enforcement, improved zoning control, and integrated urban design interventions.

Inconsistent lane widths are another significant infrastructure concern along the Sedam Road corridor in Kalaburagi. Figures~\ref{fig8} and~\ref{fig9} provide visual evidence of substantial variations in roadway width along the corridor. These inconsistencies in road geometry, associated with physical encroachments, the absence of standardized roadway design, and irregular infrastructure improvements, create considerable challenges for efficient and safe traffic operations. In several locations, the roadway narrows or widens abruptly without adequate transition zones, creating bottlenecks and merging conflicts.

Such geometric inconsistencies can lead to unpredictable driver behaviour, including sudden lane changes and hesitation during overtaking, particularly among larger vehicles such as buses, auto-rickshaws, and freight trucks. As a result, traffic flow may be disrupted and travel times may increase, especially during peak periods.

These problems are associated with unregulated roadside encroachments, unauthorized on-street parking, and ineffective traffic management. These conditions obstruct vehicular movement, contributing to congestion, driver hesitation, and unsafe overtaking manoeuvres, particularly near small businesses and busy intersections. At the same time, pedestrians face serious risks because of discontinuous sidewalks, poorly designed crossings, and the absence of protective buffers between pedestrian paths and the carriageway. In many locations, pedestrians are forced to walk along the roadway and navigate narrow spaces between moving and parked vehicles, thereby increasing the risk of collisions and near-miss incidents.

Restricted vehicular flow and increased pedestrian vulnerability are also evident along the Sedam Road corridor. As shown in Figures~\ref{fig10}--\ref{fig12}, the interaction between vehicular movement and inadequate pedestrian infrastructure creates substantial mobility and safety challenges.

As shown in Figure 13, the combined effects of right-of-way (RoW) encroachments, inconsistent lane widths, unauthorized parking, inadequate pedestrian facilities, and poor traffic management contribute to congestion along major sections of Sedam Road. These interconnected deficiencies reduce effective roadway capacity, impede traffic flow, and create conflict zones among different road users. The observed conditions indicate systemic transport problems and highlight the need for coordinated planning, stronger enforcement of right-of-way regulations, and context-sensitive street design interventions.

Indian Roads Congress guidelines emphasize the importance of appropriate road classification and geometric design standards for safe and efficient urban traffic operations [68]. These principles are particularly relevant to the conditions observed in Kalaburagi, where inconsistent roadway geometry, roadside encroachments, and limited pedestrian infrastructure affect traffic operations and safety. Addressing these challenges requires context-sensitive street design, enforcement of land-use and building regulations to prevent encroachments, and the development of a functional road classification system that supports efficient traffic distribution and multimodal integration.

Public transport in Kalaburagi remains inadequate in terms of both service quality and spatial coverage, with important implications for urban mobility, social equity, and sustainability. As shown in Figure 14, the Kalyana Karnataka Road Transport Corporation (KKRTC) operates public bus services in Kalaburagi, with city and intercity operations observed through the main bus terminus [69]. This shared operation is associated with traffic conflicts, inefficient vehicle circulation, and congestion in and around the main bus stand.

KSRTC-operated city bus services are also characterized by low service frequency, irregular schedules, limited route coverage, and inadequate integration with major residential, commercial, and institutional areas, as illustrated in Figures~\ref{fig15} and~\ref{fig16}. These limitations reduce the reliability and attractiveness of formal public transport and constrain connectivity between major urban activity centres.

Consequently, some areas remain underserved, particularly peripheral and low-income neighbourhoods where bus services may be unavailable or too infrequent to provide reliable daily mobility. In response to these service gaps, many residents depend on private vehicles, particularly two-wheelers, as well as intermediate and informal transport modes such as auto-rickshaws, shared autos, and mini-vans. As shown in Figure 17, this dependence reflects weaknesses in formal public transport provision and contributes to a fragmented urban mobility system.

Informal and intermediate transport services help compensate for gaps in formal public transport; however, poorly regulated operations, inconsistent route discipline, roadside stopping, and inadequate traffic management can also contribute to congestion, environmental impacts, and road safety risks. The absence of transparent and consistent fare structures may further disadvantage low-income commuters, particularly women, older adults, and daily-wage workers who depend on affordable and predictable transport services.

Figures~\ref{fig18} and~\ref{fig19} illustrate congestion conditions around the transport hub opposite the Kalaburagi main bus stand, where the interaction of buses, auto-rickshaws, private vehicles, pedestrians, roadside activities, and informal transport operations places substantial pressure on available road space.

The operational problems observed around the bus stand extend beyond physical capacity constraints and may also reflect institutional and governance challenges. Unregulated encroachments, informal transport operations, and weak traffic control suggest limited coordination among the municipal corporation, KSRTC, and traffic authorities. Fragmented institutional responsibilities can result in overlapping jurisdictions, weak accountability, and reactive rather than integrated transport planning.

As illustrated in Figure 20, the combined effects of mixed traffic operations, roadside activity, limited traffic management, and insufficient modal segregation contribute to congestion and conflicts among different road users. These conditions highlight the need for stronger inter-agency coordination, effective enforcement of right-of-way and traffic regulations, and a more integrated approach to public transport planning.

Addressing these challenges requires a shift from fragmented operational management toward more coordinated and accountable urban transport planning. Potential measures include improved coordination among responsible agencies, more regular and reliable city bus services, route rationalization, improved fleet quality, better integration between formal and intermediate public transport, and the use of digital information and tracking systems. Such measures may improve accessibility, reduce congestion and emissions, and support a more inclusive and sustainable urban mobility system in Kalaburagi.

Encroachments on footpaths and carriageways represent a significant barrier to safe, inclusive, and efficient urban mobility in Kalaburagi. These encroachments include informal street vending, unauthorized parking, temporary structures, and roadside commercial spillovers, all of which reduce the effective width of both pedestrian and vehicular spaces. As a result, pedestrians and motorized vehicles are forced to compete for limited roadway space, leading to reduced walkability, slower traffic movement, increased congestion, and heightened safety risks.

Super Market Road provides a representative example of these challenges. As shown in Figure 21, informal street vending occupies footpaths and spills over into the road edge, thereby restricting pedestrian movement and reducing the effective carriageway width. Although such activities play an important economic and social role in the local urban context, inadequate spatial management of vending activities can result in disorderly use of public space. Consequently, pedestrians are often forced to walk on the carriageway, increasing pedestrian--vehicle interactions and road safety risks.

Unauthorized and unregulated parking further aggravates these conditions. As illustrated in Figure 22, vehicles are often parked along road edges, near junctions, and on pedestrian pathways, reducing usable roadway space and obstructing pedestrian circulation. This can contribute to traffic congestion and compel pedestrians to walk on the road, thereby increasing their exposure to vehicular traffic and potential safety risks.

Temporary structures and informal roadside installations also contribute to right-of-way encroachment. Figure 23 shows how kiosks, stalls, tin sheds, and other temporary structures occupy sidewalks and roadside space, restricting pedestrian mobility and reducing the usable width of the street. Such encroachments can obstruct sightlines, create localized bottlenecks, and intensify congestion in high-activity commercial areas.

The cumulative effects of street vending, unauthorized parking, and temporary structures are evident in the degradation of pedestrian space and the disruption of traffic flow. As shown in Figures~\ref{fig10} and~\ref{fig24}, pedestrians are frequently displaced from designated walkways and forced to move through narrow and unsafe spaces between parked vehicles, roadside activities, and moving traffic. These conditions can disproportionately affect low-income and transport-disadvantaged groups that depend heavily on safe and accessible pedestrian infrastructure [26-59].

These patterns are consistent with Tiwari [59], who emphasizes the importance of providing adequate infrastructure for pedestrians and other non-motorized transport users in Indian cities. In Kalaburagi, the observed encroachment conditions may also reflect limitations in municipal enforcement, spatial management of informal activities, and street design practices that insufficiently accommodate non-motorized transport users [3-17].

Addressing these challenges requires a coordinated yet context-sensitive approach, including the development of designated vending spaces, improved enforcement of parking regulations, reallocation of street space, and the redesign of footpaths in accordance with pedestrian-oriented and complete street design principles [70]. Such interventions could improve mobility, accessibility, and the safe use of public street space in Kalaburagi.

Field observations indicate substantial deficiencies in NMT infrastructure in Kalaburagi, including discontinuous or poorly maintained footpaths, limited dedicated cycling facilities, and inadequate pedestrian crossing facilities. These infrastructure deficiencies can compromise the safety, mobility, and accessibility of pedestrians and cyclists, particularly for low-income and transport-disadvantaged groups [26-59].

Across the surveyed areas, footpaths are often absent, discontinuous, encroached upon, or poorly maintained, as illustrated in Figures~\ref{fig25}--\ref{fig31}. In many locations, walking surfaces are uneven or obstructed by utility poles, commercial activities, and construction materials. Essential accessibility features, including curb ramps and tactile paving for persons with disabilities, are also frequently absent. Such facilities are important components of accessible pedestrian infrastructure [70].

Furthermore, dedicated cycling infrastructure was not observed at many of the surveyed locations, forcing cyclists to share limited road space with motorized traffic. Such conditions can increase exposure to pedestrian--vehicular and cyclist--vehicular interactions, particularly along high-traffic corridors [3-70]. These deficiencies highlight the need for coordinated NMT planning and infrastructure development to support safer, more inclusive, and sustainable urban mobility.

The lack of adequate NMT infrastructure not only increases the vulnerability of pedestrians and cyclists but may also discourage the use of sustainable and low-cost travel modes. Consequently, greater dependence on motorized modes, including two-wheelers and auto-rickshaws, may contribute to increased fuel consumption, air pollution, and traffic congestion [3-17].

This pattern is consistent with the findings of Tiwari [3], who emphasizes the importance of incorporating sustainable and non-motorized modes into urban transport planning in India. Such considerations are particularly relevant to Tier-II and Tier-III cities such as Kalaburagi, where inadequate NMT infrastructure can constrain the transition toward more sustainable mobility systems.

Moreover, inadequate integration of NMT into urban transport planning undermines the principles of social equity and environmental sustainability. Pedestrians and cyclists require greater consideration in the planning process because walking and cycling provide affordable, space-efficient, and low-emission mobility options. Improving continuous footpaths, safe pedestrian crossings, universal accessibility, and dedicated cycling facilities is therefore essential for developing a more inclusive and sustainable urban mobility system in Kalaburagi [59-70].

To address these deficiencies, Kalaburagi requires a comprehensive NMT policy that prioritizes the development of:

Continuous and accessible footpaths with adequate width and barrier-free design;,Dedicated and protected cycle tracks;,Safe and signalized pedestrian crossings, particularly near schools, markets, and transport hubs;,Appropriate street lighting and wayfinding systems to improve safety, accessibility, and usability.

Such infrastructure can improve road safety, accessibility, and environmental quality while promoting healthier and more inclusive urban mobility. These measures are consistent with the objectives of the National Urban Transport Policy (NUTP) and broader sustainable mobility goals associated with Sustainable Development Goal 11 (SDG 11) [71-72].

Traffic congestion in Kalaburagi, particularly around major intersections such as the Central Bus Stand junction, represents a persistent urban mobility challenge. The observed traffic management conditions indicate limited use of integrated Intelligent Traffic Management System (ITMS) measures, which may include adaptive traffic signals, real-time traffic monitoring through CCTV surveillance, variable message signs, automatic number plate recognition (ANPR), and integrated command-and-control systems [31-32]. The Central Bus Stand junction serves as an important node for both intra-city and intercity travel and experiences substantial traffic pressure during peak periods. The area accommodates considerable pedestrian activity together with a heterogeneous mix of motorized vehicles and intensive commercial activities, as illustrated in Figures~\ref{fig32}--\ref{fig34}.

Limited signal coordination and lane-discipline enforcement may further contribute to traffic conflicts and inefficient vehicle movement at this critical junction. Pojani and Stead [2] emphasize that urban transport challenges in rapidly developing cities are closely associated with broader transport planning and policy constraints. In Kalaburagi, the interaction of high pedestrian activity, heterogeneous traffic, commercial roadside activities, and limited traffic management measures contributes to congestion and additional safety risks around the Central Bus Stand area.

Field observations at the Central Bus Stand junction identified five major traffic management deficiencies, as follows:

Limited signal coordination. At the observed locations, signal operation does not always appear to respond effectively to variations in traffic demand, contributing to irregular traffic flow and queue formation. The limited application of adaptive signal control restricts the ability of signal timings to respond dynamically to changing traffic conditions.,Limited real-time monitoring and data feedback. Limited use of real-time traffic monitoring and vehicle-count systems constrains data-driven traffic management, while traffic control and enforcement remain largely dependent on conventional management practices.,Inadequate pedestrian management. Pedestrian crossings are often absent, inadequately marked, or poorly regulated. Consequently, pedestrians may cross through gaps in moving traffic, increasing pedestrian--vehicular interactions and disrupting traffic flow.,Overlapping transport modes. Buses stopping within traffic lanes, auto-rickshaws queuing without designated bays, and informal roadside activities contribute to traffic conflicts and operational disorder. Dedicated bus-priority measures and systematic queue-management facilities are also limited.,Parking spillover and roadside encroachments. Unauthorized parking and roadside vending reduce the effective roadway width, forcing vehicles into fewer usable lanes and creating localized bottlenecks.

Collectively, these deficiencies contribute to recurring delays around the Central Bus Stand and may affect traffic conditions on nearby arterial corridors. Idling and slow-moving vehicles can also increase localized vehicular emissions and traffic noise in densely occupied areas. Inadequate pedestrian crossings, weak speed management, and poor lane discipline further increase road safety risks, while traffic delays affect commuters, daily-wage workers, commercial activities, and freight operations and may reduce overall transport efficiency.

Intersections such as Shah Bazaar and selected Ring Road junctions in Kalaburagi represent important road safety concern areas because of the combined effects of inadequate infrastructure, poor intersection design, limited pedestrian facilities, and insufficient traffic management. As major nodes within the city's transport network, these locations accommodate heterogeneous traffic and substantial pedestrian activity, increasing the potential for vehicle--vehicle and pedestrian--vehicle conflicts.

Insufficient street lighting at some intersections reduces visibility during nighttime and low-visibility conditions, making it more difficult for drivers to identify crossing pedestrians, parked vehicles, road curvature, and other potential hazards. Road safety is further affected by missing, poorly positioned, faded, or damaged traffic signs. Inadequate stop, yield, speed-limit, directional, and pedestrian-crossing signs can reduce drivers' awareness of right-of-way requirements and upcoming traffic conditions, potentially resulting in abrupt manoeuvres and conflicts. At Shah Bazaar junction, for example, inadequate advance warning for pedestrian crossings and merging movements may increase operational and safety risks.

Inadequate pedestrian facilities and irregular intersection geometry further increase safety concerns. The absence or poor provision of designated pedestrian crossings, continuous footpaths, and pedestrian signals increases pedestrian exposure to moving traffic. Pedestrians may be required to cross through irregular traffic gaps, creating additional conflict points, particularly during busy school and market periods. Children, older adults, persons with disabilities, and other vulnerable road users may be especially affected by such conditions [26-70]. In addition, poorly defined lanes, inadequate channelization, limited sight distance, and irregular intersection geometry can cause vehicles to enter junctions at inappropriate angles or speeds, increasing the potential for side-impact and other traffic conflicts [68].

Limited traffic calming and regulation can further increase safety risks at major intersections. Inadequate signalization, speed-control treatments, and lane-discipline enforcement can reduce the ability of road users to navigate intersections safely. Vehicles approaching junctions at relatively high or inconsistent speeds have less time to respond to pedestrians and other road users, particularly where visibility and crossing facilities are inadequate.

Collectively, inadequate lighting, signage, pedestrian facilities, intersection design, and traffic regulation create difficult conditions for pedestrians, cyclists, schoolchildren, and other vulnerable users. Traffic incidents at highly congested junctions may also obstruct emergency vehicle movement and reduce network efficiency. Perceptions of unsafe walking and cycling conditions may further discourage the use of non-motorized transport. These observations highlight the need for coordinated road safety interventions that integrate improved lighting, signage, pedestrian facilities, intersection redesign, traffic calming, and effective enforcement.

Auto-rickshaws, shared taxis, and mini-vans, commonly categorized as Intermediate Public Transport (IPT), constitute an important component of the urban mobility system in many Indian cities and are also widely observed in Kalaburagi [73]. These services often supplement formal public transport networks by providing flexible and last-mile connectivity, particularly in areas where scheduled bus services are limited or unavailable [13-73].

Although IPT services provide important mobility options for daily commuters, weakly regulated operations can create challenges for traffic efficiency, safety, environmental quality, and overall urban mobility performance [73-74]. The absence of clearly designated stopping areas, route organization, standardized operating practices, and effective regulatory oversight can result in irregular stopping, informal queuing, roadside congestion, and conflicts with pedestrians and other transport modes [73].

From an operational perspective, IPT services in Kalaburagi generally exhibit greater flexibility in routing, stopping, and passenger collection than scheduled formal public transport services. Auto-rickshaws frequently stop at road edges, intersections, market areas, and transport hubs to pick up and drop off passengers. Where designated bays and organized queuing facilities are absent, such activities can reduce effective road capacity and create localized bottlenecks, particularly during peak periods. Irregular lane changes, roadside stopping, and interactions with buses, two-wheelers, and private vehicles further contribute to heterogeneous and unpredictable traffic conditions.

Fare and service practices may also vary across some IPT operations. In the absence of clearly communicated fare structures and service standards, passengers may experience uncertainty regarding trip costs and service reliability. Improving route organization, designated stopping areas, fare transparency, and operational monitoring could enhance the reliability of IPT while preserving its role as a flexible mobility option.

Environmental and safety concerns may arise where high concentrations of IPT vehicles operate under congested, prolonged idling, and stop-and-go conditions. Such operating conditions can contribute to localized fuel consumption, vehicular emissions, and traffic noise. Road safety concerns may also arise where vehicles stop abruptly, compete for passenger space, or operate in areas with inadequate pedestrian facilities and weak lane discipline [73-74]. These conditions reinforce the need for better integration of IPT operations with broader traffic management and street-design measures.

Formalizing IPT services requires consideration of both regulatory and socioeconomic factors. Auto-rickshaw and shared-transport services provide livelihoods for operators while serving passengers who depend on flexible and relatively accessible transport options. Consequently, regulatory measures should seek to improve safety, service quality, and traffic management without undermining the accessibility and livelihood functions provided by these modes [74]. Appropriate measures may include designated IPT stands, route and stopping-area management, transparent fare structures, vehicle and driver compliance requirements, and stronger coordination between transport and municipal authorities.

Studies of informal and intermediate public transport in Indian cities highlight the need to balance their important mobility and accessibility functions with improved operational and regulatory management [73-74]. In Kalaburagi, a more systematic approach to IPT regulation and integration could improve last-mile connectivity while reducing roadside congestion, traffic conflicts, and service uncertainty. Rather than eliminating informal and intermediate transport services, urban mobility policy should seek to integrate them into a coordinated multimodal transport system.

Increasing motorization and traffic congestion observed in Kalaburagi raise important environmental concerns, particularly in densely developed central areas. The growing use of private vehicles, especially two-wheelers and cars, can increase fuel consumption and vehicular emissions. Under congested and stop-and-go traffic conditions, these effects may become more pronounced because vehicles operate inefficiently and remain idling for longer periods [53-54].

Motor vehicles powered by internal combustion engines emit pollutants such as particulate matter (PM), nitrogen oxides (NO$_x$), carbon monoxide (CO), and other combustion-related pollutants. Higher traffic volumes and recurrent congestion can therefore contribute to deterioration in local air quality, particularly along heavily trafficked corridors and at major intersections [25-54]. PM$_{2.5}$, which refers to fine particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter of 2.5~$\mu$m or less, is of particular concern because prolonged exposure is associated with adverse respiratory and cardiovascular health effects [25]. Children, older adults, and individuals with pre-existing health conditions may be particularly vulnerable to poor air quality.

Traffic congestion can further intensify environmental pressures because slow-moving and idling vehicles consume fuel and generate emissions without corresponding increases in mobility. However, urban air quality may also be influenced by other sources, including construction activities, industrial emissions, road dust, and waste burning. Consequently, the potential contribution of transport-related emissions in Kalaburagi should be interpreted within this broader urban environmental context rather than attributed exclusively to motor vehicles.

Persistent exposure to particulate matter and other traffic-related pollutants can adversely affect environmental quality and public health [25]. Increasing vehicle dependence, inadequate public transport provision, and inefficient traffic management may therefore reinforce both congestion and transport-related environmental pressures. These conditions highlight the importance of measures that reduce unnecessary vehicle use and improve traffic efficiency, including stronger public transport provision, promotion of non-motorized transport, improved vehicle-emission compliance, and more effective traffic management.

Overall, the environmental concerns associated with increasing motorization in Kalaburagi demonstrate the importance of integrating air-quality considerations into urban mobility planning. Measures that promote cleaner vehicles, reduce congestion, strengthen public transport, and encourage walking and cycling may contribute simultaneously to improved mobility, lower transport-related emissions, and a healthier urban environment.

Urban transport planning and management in Kalaburagi involve multiple agencies responsible for road development, public transport, traffic regulation, land-use planning, and municipal services. The involvement of multiple institutions can create coordination challenges where responsibilities are not clearly integrated. Such conditions may result in overlapping responsibilities, delayed implementation, inconsistent enforcement, and limited accountability, thereby reducing the effectiveness of urban mobility planning.

The management of roads, public transport services, traffic control, parking, pedestrian infrastructure, and roadside activities involves agencies operating under different administrative mandates. Limited coordination among these functions can result in transport interventions being implemented independently rather than as part of a coordinated citywide mobility strategy. This may contribute to inconsistencies in road design, public transport provision, traffic management, and the regulation of encroachments and informal transport activities.

Institutional coordination is also important for integrating land-use planning with transport planning. Rapid urban expansion, changing travel demand, and increasing motorization require coordinated decisions regarding road hierarchy, public transport routes, pedestrian and cycling infrastructure, parking management, and development control. Where inter-agency coordination is limited, these elements may be addressed separately, reducing the overall efficiency and sustainability of the urban transport system.

Addressing these governance challenges requires stronger coordination among municipal, transport, planning, and traffic-management authorities, supported by clearly defined institutional responsibilities and shared transport data. A more integrated urban mobility planning mechanism could improve accountability, facilitate coordinated investment, and support more effective implementation of sustainable transport measures in Kalaburagi.

The assessment revealed several deficiencies in Kalaburagi's transport infrastructure and public transport system that affect mobility efficiency, accessibility, and user safety. Existing road and street infrastructure is characterized by inadequate maintenance, uneven or obstructed footpaths, and limited dedicated cycling facilities. These conditions constrain both motorized and non-motorized movement and reduce the overall effectiveness of the urban transport system. These observations are consistent with the broader need to improve pedestrian and non-motorized transport infrastructure in Indian cities [59].

Public transport services, primarily consisting of buses and auto-rickshaws, exhibit limitations in service frequency, route coverage, and peak-period capacity in the surveyed areas. Consequently, residents in underserved areas may depend more heavily on intermediate transport services or private vehicles for their daily travel needs. Similar public transport constraints have been reported more broadly in Indian cities [13-55].

User comfort, safety, and accessibility are further affected by inadequate supporting infrastructure, including limited bus shelters, insufficient signage, inadequate street lighting, and limited barrier-free pedestrian facilities. The lack of ramps, safe pedestrian crossings, and other inclusive design features particularly affects vulnerable and transport-disadvantaged users [26-70].

Operational deficiencies, including recurrent congestion, limited dedicated public transport facilities, insufficient real-time passenger information, and weak integration among different transport modes, further reduce the reliability and efficiency of public transport services. Overall, the findings highlight the need for improved multimodal connectivity, stronger pedestrian and cycling infrastructure, and more reliable and accessible public transport services to support a safer, more inclusive, and sustainable urban mobility system in Kalaburagi.

Figure 35 presents the observed traffic and pedestrian movements at Super Market Circle in Kalaburagi. A total of 2,593 road-user movements were recorded during the morning peak period from 8:00 to 9:00 AM. Pedestrians constituted the largest share of the observed movements, with 970 movements (37.4\%), followed by two-wheelers with 720 vehicle movements (27.8\%) and auto-rickshaws with 440 vehicle movements (17.0\%). The substantial presence of pedestrians and intermediate public transport vehicles reflects the intensive mixed-use mobility characteristics of this commercial area and highlights the importance of adequate pedestrian facilities and traffic management.

Directional analysis shows that the north approach carried the highest overall movement volume. It recorded the highest pedestrian volume (325), two-wheeler volume (220), and a substantial number of auto-rickshaws (115). This concentration indicates relatively high travel demand along the northern approach and may be associated with surrounding commercial activity, residential catchments, and arterial connectivity. The observed traffic composition also demonstrates substantial interaction among pedestrians, private vehicles, and intermediate public transport modes.

Buses represented approximately 0.8\% of the total observed movements, while trucks, light goods vehicles (LGVs), and heavy goods vehicles (HGVs) together accounted for approximately 0.5\%. Cyclists represented approximately 2.7\% of the observed movements, indicating a considerably lower cycling presence than pedestrian activity. Because the survey recorded vehicle movements and pedestrian/cyclist movements rather than passenger trips, these percentages represent shares of observed road-user movements and should not be interpreted as passenger modal shares.

Overall, the traffic composition shown in Figure 36 and Table 3 demonstrates the heterogeneous mobility pattern at Super Market Circle. The substantial presence of pedestrians, two-wheelers, and auto-rickshaws highlights the importance of pedestrian facilities, traffic management, NMT infrastructure, and the coordination of formal and intermediate public transport services.

From a planning perspective, the observed mobility pattern indicates the need for coordinated improvements in pedestrian infrastructure, cycling facilities, public transport, and multimodal integration. Priority measures may include wider and universally accessible footpaths, safer pedestrian crossings, dedicated cycling facilities, improved first- and last-mile connectivity, more reliable public transport services, and designated facilities for intermediate public transport operations. Spatial audits of street networks, walkability conditions, and surrounding land-use intensity could further support complete-street design, traffic-calming measures, and integrated mobility planning around major commercial and transport nodes.

Figure 37 presents the observed traffic and pedestrian movements at SVP Circle in Kalaburagi. The junction exhibits substantial pedestrian activity, with the highest pedestrian volumes recorded from the north (210) and west (205) approaches. Two-wheeler movements are relatively evenly distributed across all four approaches, indicating multidirectional travel demand and the widespread use of personal motorized transport.

Pedestrians constituted the largest share of observed movements (40.7\%), followed by two-wheelers (30.0\%). Together, these two categories accounted for more than 70\% of the total recorded movements, highlighting the substantial presence of walking and two-wheelers within the local mobility system. The high level of pedestrian activity may be associated with surrounding commercial, institutional, and transport-related activities and reinforces the importance of adequate pedestrian infrastructure and safe crossing facilities.

Buses accounted for approximately 2.2\% of the total observed movements, while trucks, light goods vehicles (LGVs), and heavy goods vehicles (HGVs) together represented approximately 1.1\%. Auto-rickshaws accounted for 9.0\%, indicating the continued importance of Intermediate Public Transport (IPT). Cyclists represented approximately 3.0\% of the observed movements, indicating considerably lower cycling activity compared with walking and two-wheeler use. These percentages represent shares of observed road-user movements rather than passenger modal shares.

Directional analysis indicates a comparatively balanced distribution of movements across the four approaches, although the north approach recorded the highest total volume, followed by the south approach. This relatively even distribution reflects the junction's role as an important urban node connecting surrounding residential, commercial, institutional, and transport activities. The observed traffic and directional patterns are summarized in Table 4.

Figure 38 summarizes the principal traffic indicators for SVP Circle. A total of 1,968 observed road-user movements was recorded during the survey period. The analysis also yielded a PCU-based traffic flow of 1,120.5~PCU/h and a V/C ratio of 0.448. Based on the adopted practical roadway capacity, this V/C ratio indicates that vehicular demand remained below capacity during the survey period. Pedestrians constituted the largest share of observed movements (40.7\%), followed by two-wheelers (30.0\%) and cars (14.0\%). Directional analysis shows that the north approach carried the highest overall movement volume, followed by the south approach, although movements were relatively evenly distributed among the four approaches. Despite the comparatively moderate vehicular demand indicated by the V/C ratio, the substantial pedestrian activity highlights the importance of improved crossing facilities, traffic calming, and pedestrian-oriented junction design.

From a planning perspective, the observed traffic characteristics indicate the importance of improving pedestrian infrastructure through continuous footpaths, raised or signalized crossings, adequate street lighting, and universal-accessibility measures. Protected cycling facilities and bicycle parking may also be considered, particularly along connections to commercial areas and major transport nodes [70].

Public transport services could be strengthened through improved bus shelters, clearer route information, and more reliable service provision. Better integration among formal public transport, IPT, walking, and cycling could further support first- and last-mile connectivity.

Overall, the traffic conditions at SVP Circle demonstrate a relatively balanced directional distribution together with substantial pedestrian, two-wheeler, and intermediate public transport activity. Targeted multimodal interventions could therefore improve pedestrian safety, public transport accessibility, and overall mobility efficiency at this important urban junction.

Figure 39 presents the observed traffic and pedestrian movements at the Kalaburagi Railway Station Area. The north approach recorded the highest overall movement volume, including 365 pedestrians and 293 two-wheelers. Substantial pedestrian volumes were also observed from the south (315), east (308), and west (296) approaches, demonstrating considerable pedestrian activity from multiple directions around this important transport node.

Pedestrians constituted the largest share of observed movements, accounting for 41.3\% of the total, followed by two-wheelers at 30.6\%. The substantial pedestrian activity reflects the importance of walking for station access and may also be associated with surrounding commercial activities, nearby transport services, and other land uses within the station precinct. Among motorized modes, two-wheelers recorded the highest volume (951), followed by cars (421) and auto-rickshaws (376), indicating substantial use of personal and intermediate transport for access to and from the station.

Buses accounted for approximately 0.6\% of the total observed movements, while trucks, light goods vehicles (LGVs), and heavy goods vehicles (HGVs) together represented approximately 0.1\%. Auto-rickshaws accounted for 12.1\%, highlighting the important role of Intermediate Public Transport (IPT) in station access and last-mile connectivity. Cyclists represented approximately 1.7\% of the observed movements, indicating considerably lower cycling activity compared with walking and two-wheeler use. These percentages represent shares of observed road-user movements rather than passenger modal shares. The observed traffic and directional patterns are summarized in Table 5.

Figure 40 summarizes the principal traffic indicators for the Kalaburagi Railway Station Area. A total of 3,108 observed road-user movements was recorded during the survey period, with a PCU-based traffic flow of 1,192.8~PCU/h. Pedestrians constituted the largest share of observed movements (41.3\%), followed by two-wheelers (30.6\%), cars (13.5\%), and auto-rickshaws (12.1\%). Directional analysis identifies the north approach as the busiest, with 908 recorded movements. Motorized and non-motorized movements accounted for approximately 57\% and 43\% of the total observed movements, respectively, demonstrating the heterogeneous movement pattern within the station precinct.

Collectively, these patterns indicate substantial pedestrian, two-wheeler, and intermediate public transport activity around the railway station, while buses account for a comparatively small share of the observed vehicle movements. The findings highlight the importance of improved infrastructure, stronger service coordination, and more effective first- and last-mile connectivity to support better multimodal integration within the station precinct.

Based on the observed traffic characteristics, priority measures may include the following:

Enhance pedestrian infrastructure. Develop continuous and adequately sized footpaths, provide safe pedestrian crossings, improve street lighting, and incorporate universal-accessibility features such as ramps and tactile paving around station entrances and surrounding commercial areas.,Improve cycling facilities. Develop protected cycling facilities and provide bicycle parking near station entrances to support short-distance access to the railway station.,Improve multimodal integration. Coordinate bus, auto-rickshaw, pedestrian, and cycling movements with railway-station access through designated bays, clear signage, passenger-information systems, and improved wayfinding.,Improve last-mile connectivity. Strengthen feeder services between the railway station and major residential and commercial areas through appropriately planned shuttle, minibus, and IPT services.,Manage private vehicle access. Introduce appropriate traffic-calming measures, organized parking facilities, and access-management strategies to reduce conflicts between private vehicles, pedestrians, and public transport around the station area.

Overall, the Kalaburagi Railway Station Area demonstrates substantial pedestrian and two-wheeler activity, together with considerable use of IPT for station access. Improved multimodal integration, pedestrian and cycling infrastructure, public transport coordination, and first- and last-mile connectivity could enhance the accessibility, safety, and efficiency of this important urban transport node.

Figure 41 presents the observed traffic and pedestrian movements at the Sedam Road and Ring Road junctions in Kalaburagi. The directional distribution shows relatively higher overall movement volumes from the north and south approaches. Freight movements are distributed across all four approaches, indicating the importance of this corridor for both local and through-traffic movement.

Pedestrians constituted the largest share of observed movements, accounting for 36.1\% of the total. Buses and trucks, light goods vehicles (LGVs), and heavy goods vehicles (HGVs) accounted for 3.5\% and 4.8\%, respectively, representing higher shares than those observed at several other surveyed locations. The presence of freight traffic across all approaches reflects the role of Sedam Road and the Ring Road in accommodating both urban and regional transport movements.

Two-wheelers (660, 26.5\%) and auto-rickshaws (336, 13.5\%) also constituted substantial shares of the observed movements, demonstrating their importance for local mobility. Cyclists accounted for only 3.0\% of the observed movements, indicating comparatively limited cycling activity along this high-traffic corridor. These percentages represent shares of observed road-user movements rather than passenger modal shares.

The combination of substantial pedestrian activity with bus and freight movements creates considerable potential for pedestrian--vehicular interaction, particularly during peak periods. Pedestrians and cyclists share the corridor with faster and heavier motorized vehicles, increasing the importance of effective traffic management and appropriate segregation of road users. These conditions highlight the need for targeted traffic-management and infrastructure measures, including safe pedestrian crossings, cycling facilities, effective freight management, and improved junction control. The observed traffic and directional patterns are summarized in Table 6.

Taken together, Figures~\ref{fig6} and~\ref{fig41} illustrate the relationship between physical roadside constraints and the observed traffic conditions along the corridor. Encroachments and reductions in usable roadway space may constrain traffic efficiency and increase interactions among different road users, highlighting the importance of integrated corridor-level management.

Figure 42 summarizes the principal traffic characteristics at the Sedam Road and Ring Road junctions during the morning peak period. A total of 2,494 observed road-user movements was recorded during the survey period. Pedestrians constituted the largest share of observed movements (36.1\%), followed by two-wheelers (26.5\%), auto-rickshaws (13.5\%), and cars (12.6\%). Directional analysis identifies the north approach as the busiest, with 663 recorded movements, followed by the south approach with 639 movements. The PCU-based traffic flow was approximately 1,640~PCU/h, with a V/C ratio of 0.55. Based on the adopted practical roadway capacity, this value indicates that vehicular demand remained below capacity during the survey period, while utilizing approximately 55\% of the stated capacity. The combination of substantial pedestrian activity, freight movement, buses, and heterogeneous motorized traffic highlights the importance of improved pedestrian facilities, effective traffic management, and appropriate modal segregation at these junctions.

Based on the observed traffic characteristics, priority measures may include the following:

Manage truck and bus movements. Where roadway geometry and traffic demand permit, clearly managed space for freight and bus movements should be considered to reduce conflicts with other motorized and non-motorized users.,Enhance pedestrian crossings and safety facilities. Raised or signalized pedestrian crossings, pedestrian refuge islands, and median refuges may be provided at appropriate locations to improve pedestrian safety across wide and high-volume road sections.,Improve cycling infrastructure. Protected cycling facilities may be considered along appropriate sections of Sedam Road and the Ring Road, particularly where surrounding land uses generate short-distance trips.,Improve signal coordination. Coordinated and, where appropriate, intelligent traffic-signal systems may be introduced to respond more effectively to variations in traffic volume and vehicle composition.,Coordinate transport and land-use planning. Future development along Sedam Road and the Ring Road should be coordinated with transport planning, development control, and logistics activities to accommodate changing travel demand more effectively.

Overall, the Sedam Road--Ring Road corridor accommodates substantial pedestrian activity together with freight vehicles, IPT, buses, and private vehicles. The observed conditions indicate the importance of an integrated multimodal approach incorporating pedestrian safety, traffic management, freight operations, and active-mobility facilities to improve the efficiency and safety of this important urban corridor.

Figure 43 presents the observed traffic and pedestrian movements in the vicinity of the Main Bus Stand in Kalaburagi. As a major multimodal transport hub, the area accommodates intercity and urban bus services, auto-rickshaws, private vehicles, cyclists, and substantial pedestrian activity. The observed traffic composition indicates considerable interaction among motorized, intermediate, and non-motorized modes within a spatially constrained transport environment.

Pedestrians and cyclists together accounted for approximately 43.8\% of the total recorded movements. Pedestrians alone constituted the largest share of observed movements, representing 39.6\% of the total. This substantial level of non-motorized movement highlights the importance of adequate pedestrian and cycling facilities around the bus stand. Where continuous footpaths, safe crossings, and dedicated cycling facilities are inadequate, substantial pedestrian activity can increase interactions with motorized traffic and affect accessibility and safety.

Auto-rickshaws accounted for 10.0\% of the total observed movements, demonstrating the important role of Intermediate Public Transport (IPT) in providing first- and last-mile connectivity between the bus terminal and surrounding areas. Where designated IPT pickup and drop-off areas and organized queuing facilities are limited, roadside stopping and passenger collection can contribute to localized congestion and pedestrian--vehicle interactions.

Two-wheelers and cars accounted for 28.3\% and 13.7\% of the total observed movements, respectively, indicating substantial private motorized traffic around the terminal. Buses accounted for 3.4\% of the observed movements. The simultaneous presence of private vehicles, buses, IPT, pedestrians, and cyclists creates complex interactions within the limited road and curb space surrounding the bus stand. These percentages represent shares of observed road-user movements rather than passenger modal shares. The observed traffic and directional patterns are summarized in Table 7.

Taken together, Figures~\ref{fig14} and~\ref{fig43} illustrate the operational pressures experienced around the Main Bus Stand. Limited spatial segregation among buses, IPT, private vehicles, pedestrians, and other road users may contribute to traffic conflicts and inefficient circulation around the terminal, highlighting the importance of organized bus and IPT facilities, improved pedestrian infrastructure, and integrated terminal management.

Figure 44 summarizes the principal traffic characteristics in the Main Bus Stand vicinity. A total of 2,476 observed road-user movements was recorded during the survey period. Pedestrians constituted the largest share of observed movements (39.6\%), followed by two-wheelers (28.3\%), cars (13.7\%), and auto-rickshaws (10.0\%). Directional analysis identifies the north approach as the busiest, with 673 recorded movements, followed by the south approach with 638 movements. The PCU-based traffic flow was 1,159.2~PCU/h. The combination of substantial pedestrian activity, private vehicles, IPT, and bus movements demonstrates the heterogeneous traffic conditions around the terminal and highlights the importance of improved pedestrian crossings, organized bus and IPT facilities, and effective traffic management.

Based on the observed traffic characteristics, priority measures may include the following:

Enhance pedestrian and cycling infrastructure. Develop continuous and adequately sized footpaths, provide clearly marked and appropriately controlled pedestrian crossings, and introduce safe cycling facilities to improve non-motorized access around the bus stand.,Establish organized IPT zones. Provide designated IPT pickup and drop-off areas, organized queuing spaces, appropriate signage, and controlled entry and exit arrangements to reduce roadside conflicts and improve passenger interchange.,Provide organized bus bays and passenger facilities. Develop appropriately designed bus bays or stopping areas separated from through-traffic where feasible, together with sheltered waiting areas, passenger information, and appropriate boarding and alighting facilities.,Manage freight access during peak periods. Where operationally appropriate, time-based access or delivery-management measures for freight vehicles may be considered to minimize conflicts with peak-period passenger and public transport movements.,Improve traffic and curb management. Appropriate Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS), including traffic monitoring, passenger and traffic information systems, and dynamic signage, may support more effective traffic and curbside management around the terminal.,Coordinate transport and surrounding land-use planning. Given the concentration of multimodal activity around the Main Bus Stand, future development should emphasize walkability, high-quality public transport access, and improved interchange facilities.

Overall, the Main Bus Stand vicinity functions as an important multimodal convergence point within Kalaburagi's urban and regional transport system. The observed interaction among buses, IPT, private vehicles, pedestrians, and cyclists indicates the need for integrated improvements in pedestrian facilities, bus operations, IPT management, traffic control, and interchange design to enhance the safety, accessibility, and efficiency of this important transport precinct.

Figure 45 presents the observed traffic and pedestrian movements at Shah Bazaar and the surrounding market areas in Kalaburagi. A total of 3,038 road-user movements were recorded during the morning peak period, reflecting the high level of pedestrian and vehicular activity within this dense commercial area. The observed traffic composition is characterized by substantial pedestrian, two-wheeler, and Intermediate Public Transport (IPT) movements, indicating the importance of walking and flexible local transport within the market precinct.

Pedestrians constituted the largest share of observed movements, accounting for 47.9\% of the total, as shown in Table 8 and Figure 45. This substantial pedestrian activity reflects the importance of walking for access to shops, markets, services, and surrounding areas. Where continuous footpaths, safe crossings, designated vending areas, and organized loading spaces are inadequate, high pedestrian activity can increase competition for limited right-of-way (RoW) and pedestrian--vehicular interaction.

Directional analysis further demonstrates the concentration of movement from the north approach, which recorded the highest overall volume. Pedestrian volumes were particularly high from the north (496) and west (356), while two-wheeler movements were also substantial from the north (245) and south (234). These patterns demonstrate multidirectional access to the market area and reinforce the importance of adequate pedestrian facilities, traffic calming, and effective management of shared street space.

Auto-rickshaws accounted for 12.0\% of the total observed movements, highlighting their important role in local and first- and last-mile mobility. Where designated IPT stands, pickup and drop-off areas, and organized queuing facilities are limited, roadside stopping and parking can reduce usable road space and contribute to localized congestion. Cars represented 8.8\% of the total observed movements, while buses and freight vehicles accounted for 0.8\% and 0.2\%, respectively. These percentages represent shares of observed road-user movements rather than passenger modal shares.

Overall, the observed movement pattern at Shah Bazaar is strongly characterized by pedestrian activity, together with substantial two-wheeler and IPT movements. The principal challenge is therefore not simply the distribution of movements among road users, but also the adequacy of infrastructure for accommodating these activities safely and efficiently.

Figure 46 summarizes the principal traffic characteristics at Shah Bazaar and the surrounding market areas. A total of 3,038 observed road-user movements were recorded during the survey period, with a PCU-based vehicular flow of 1,158.8~PCU/h. Pedestrians constituted the largest share of observed movements (47.9\%), followed by two-wheelers (28.2\%) and auto-rickshaws (12.0\%). Together, pedestrians and two-wheelers accounted for approximately 76.1\% of all observed movements. Directional analysis identifies the north approach as the busiest, with 955 recorded movements. Motorized and non-motorized movements accounted for approximately 50.1\% and 49.9\% of the total observed movements, respectively, indicating an almost equal distribution between these two broad groups. The intensive interaction between pedestrians and motorized traffic highlights the importance of adequate pedestrian facilities, organized vending and loading areas, safe crossings, and effective traffic management within the market precinct.

Based on the observed traffic characteristics, priority measures may include the following:

Prioritize pedestrian infrastructure. Develop continuous and adequately sized footpaths along major and secondary market streets, together with safe pedestrian crossings, bollards, appropriate paving, and designated areas that reduce conflicts between pedestrian movement and commercial activities.,Manage vehicle access during high-demand periods. Consider time-based vehicle-access restrictions on selected market streets during periods of intensive pedestrian and commercial activity. Controlled-access measures could be introduced where appropriate to reduce pedestrian--vehicle interactions.,Organize loading and unloading activities. Establish designated loading areas and appropriate delivery time windows for commercial and vendor supply vehicles to reduce interference with pedestrian activity and normal traffic operations.,Provide structured IPT facilities. Establish clearly designated auto-rickshaw stands and pickup/drop-off areas near major market entry and exit points, with appropriate signage and integration with pedestrian access routes.,Strengthen parking and encroachment management. Improve enforcement and physical management measures to prevent unauthorized parking and excessive commercial spillover from reducing pedestrian space and usable roadway width.,Enhance universal accessibility and wayfinding. Provide ramps, tactile paving, accessible pedestrian routes, appropriate resting areas, and clear wayfinding facilities to improve accessibility for persons with disabilities, older adults, children, and other users [70].,Consider pedestrian-priority and shared-street approaches. Evaluate the feasibility of pedestrian-priority or shared-street treatments on selected internal market streets where pedestrian volumes are particularly high and through-traffic requirements are limited.

Shah Bazaar functions as an important pedestrian-oriented commercial node within Kalaburagi, characterized by intensive walking activity together with substantial IPT and two-wheeler movements. Future interventions should therefore prioritize pedestrian safety and accessibility while improving the management of motorized traffic, IPT operations, parking, loading activities, and commercial use of street space.

Figure 47 presents the observed traffic and pedestrian movements at Rama Mandir Circle in Kalaburagi. The junction accommodates substantial pedestrian, private vehicle, Intermediate Public Transport (IPT), bus, and freight movements, creating a heterogeneous traffic environment in which different road users interact within the available road space.

As shown in Table 9, pedestrians constituted the largest share of observed movements, accounting for 36.5\% of the total. This substantial pedestrian activity highlights the importance of walking for local access and short-distance travel around the junction. Where continuous footpaths, clearly defined crossings, and adequate pedestrian-safety facilities are limited, high pedestrian activity can increase interactions with motorized traffic and affect the safety and accessibility of the junction.

Auto-rickshaws accounted for 16.2\% of the total observed movements, indicating the important role of IPT in local and first- and last-mile mobility. Where designated stopping areas and organized pickup and drop-off facilities are inadequate, irregular stopping and turning movements can interfere with traffic flow and increase pedestrian--vehicle interactions. Two-wheelers constituted a further 26.0\% of the observed movements, demonstrating substantial use of personal motorized transport.

Freight traffic was also observed at Rama Mandir Circle, with 119 trucks, light goods vehicles (LGVs), and heavy goods vehicles (HGVs) recorded during the survey period, representing 3.6\% of the total observed movements. The simultaneous presence of freight vehicles, IPT, private vehicles, pedestrians, and cyclists increases the operational complexity of the junction and highlights the importance of appropriate freight management and safe interaction among different road users.

Directional analysis shows that the north approach carried the highest overall movement volume, with 1,008 recorded movements, followed by the south approach with 836 movements. The west and east approaches recorded 749 and 736 movements, respectively. This distribution indicates substantial multidirectional movement, with comparatively greater traffic pressure on the north approach.

Compared with the strongly pedestrian-oriented conditions observed at Shah Bazaar and the intensive multimodal activity around the Main Bus Stand, Rama Mandir Circle exhibits a more heterogeneous mix of pedestrian, private, intermediate, and freight transport movements. This diversity creates additional operational and safety challenges where the available street space is not clearly allocated among different road users. These percentages represent shares of observed road-user movements rather than passenger modal shares.

Figure 48 presents (a) the shares of observed road-user movements, (b) the directional traffic composition by approach, and (c) Passenger Car Unit (PCU)-based road-space occupancy by vehicle category. A total of 3,329 observed road-user movements were recorded during the survey period. Pedestrians constituted the largest share (36.5\%), followed by two-wheelers (26.0\%), auto-rickshaws (16.2\%), and cars (14.3\%). Directional analysis confirms that the north approach carried the highest overall movement volume, followed by the south, west, and east approaches. The combined presence of pedestrians, IPT, private vehicles, buses, cyclists, and freight vehicles demonstrates the heterogeneous traffic characteristics of Rama Mandir Circle.

Based on the observed traffic characteristics, priority measures may include the following:

Improve the management of IPT and freight movements. Where roadway geometry and traffic demand permit, designated operating space and appropriate channelization should be considered for auto-rickshaws and freight vehicles to reduce conflicts with other motorized and non-motorized users.,Provide structured auto-rickshaw bays. Develop designated pickup and drop-off areas for auto-rickshaws near major activity areas. Appropriate signage, queuing arrangements, and enforcement could reduce irregular stopping and improve junction operations.,Introduce appropriate freight-access management. Where necessary, time-based freight-management measures could be considered to reduce interactions between heavy vehicles and intensive passenger or pedestrian movements during peak periods.,Enhance pedestrian safety. Provide clearly marked or signalized pedestrian crossings, raised crossing treatments, refuge islands, and other appropriate pedestrian-safety facilities at locations with substantial crossing demand.,Improve cycling facilities. Consider protected or clearly designated cycling facilities where feasible, together with secure bicycle parking and appropriate first- and last-mile connections.,Strengthen signalization and traffic management. Coordinated traffic signals and appropriate traffic-monitoring measures could improve the management of heterogeneous traffic flows.,Introduce traffic-calming and speed-management measures. Appropriate road markings, speed-control treatments, junction-design measures, and enforcement should be considered in areas with substantial pedestrian--vehicular interaction.,Improve wayfinding and signage. Provide clear directional, regulatory, and warning signs, together with road-name boards and public transport information, to improve navigation and reduce uncertain or abrupt traffic movements.

Overall, Rama Mandir Circle is an important urban intersection characterized by substantial pedestrian activity together with two-wheelers, IPT, private cars, buses, and freight vehicles. The observed traffic pattern indicates that improvement strategies should extend beyond roadway-capacity enhancement and incorporate multimodal integration, pedestrian safety, freight management, and effective traffic control. Coordinated interventions could improve the safety, accessibility, and operational efficiency of the junction in accordance with pedestrian-oriented and sustainable street-design principles [70].

Figure 49 presents the observed traffic and pedestrian movements at Humnabad Ring Road Circle in Kalaburagi. Compared with several of the more intensively used central-city locations surveyed, the junction recorded a lower total movement volume and a relatively balanced directional distribution. Nevertheless, the observed traffic composition demonstrates substantial interaction among pedestrians, two-wheelers, Intermediate Public Transport (IPT), buses, freight vehicles, and other motorized modes.

Pedestrians constituted the largest share of observed movements, accounting for 35.7\% of the total, followed by two-wheelers at 28.6\%. Cyclists accounted for a further 3.3\%, resulting in non-motorized movements representing approximately 39.0\% of the total observed movements. These patterns highlight the importance of providing appropriate pedestrian and cycling facilities even at peripheral junctions with substantial motorized traffic.

Auto-rickshaws accounted for 11.0\% of the total observed movements, demonstrating the importance of IPT for local and first- and last-mile mobility. Cars represented 12.4\%, while buses accounted for 4.2\%. Freight vehicles, including trucks, light goods vehicles (LGVs), and heavy goods vehicles (HGVs), constituted 4.7\% of the observed movements. The presence of freight traffic across all four approaches indicates that the junction accommodates goods-vehicle movements in addition to local passenger traffic. These percentages represent shares of observed road-user movements rather than passenger modal shares.

Directional analysis shows that the north approach carried the highest overall movement volume, with 501 recorded movements, followed by the south (481), east (448), and west (421) approaches. The relatively gradual variation among the four directions indicates a comparatively balanced distribution of movements, although the north and south approaches experienced somewhat greater demand.

The coexistence of substantial pedestrian activity with two-wheelers, IPT, buses, and freight vehicles creates important road-safety and operational considerations. Where pedestrian crossings, cycling facilities, organized public transport stops, and appropriate traffic-management measures are limited, vulnerable road users may interact directly with heavier and faster-moving vehicles. The observed traffic characteristics therefore highlight the importance of balancing vehicular movement with local accessibility and safety requirements, as summarized in Table 10.

Figure 50 summarizes the principal traffic characteristics at Humnabad Ring Road Circle during the morning peak period. A total of 1,851 observed road-user movements were recorded, with a PCU-based vehicular flow of 1,225~PCU/h and a V/C ratio of 0.408. Pedestrians constituted the largest share of observed movements (35.7\%), followed by two-wheelers (28.6\%), cars (12.4\%), and auto-rickshaws (11.0\%). Directional analysis identifies the north approach as the busiest, with 501 recorded movements, followed by the south, east, and west approaches with 481, 448, and 421 movements, respectively. Based on the adopted practical roadway capacity, the V/C ratio indicates that vehicular demand remained well below capacity during the survey period. Nevertheless, the substantial pedestrian activity and coexistence of freight vehicles, public transport, IPT, and private vehicles highlight the importance of pedestrian safety, speed management, and multimodal traffic organization at this peripheral junction.

The observed traffic pattern indicates that Humnabad Ring Road Circle accommodates both local access and broader vehicular movements. Its combination of pedestrian activity, two-wheelers, IPT, buses, private vehicles, and freight traffic requires traffic management that considers both movement efficiency and the safety of vulnerable road users.

Based on the observed traffic characteristics, priority measures may include the following:

Improve pedestrian crossings and safety facilities. Provide clearly marked or raised pedestrian crossings, pedestrian refuge islands, appropriate lighting, and other safety facilities at locations with substantial crossing demand, particularly near public transport stops and surrounding activity areas.,Improve cycling infrastructure. Where roadway width and demand permit, safe cycling facilities may be developed along appropriate Ring Road sections, together with bicycle parking at important local and public transport destinations.,Improve the management of two-wheelers and IPT. Appropriate lane organization, designated IPT stopping areas, and clearer traffic channelization should be considered to reduce weaving, irregular stopping, and conflicts among different vehicle types.,Manage freight movements. Where peak-period interactions between freight and local traffic are significant, appropriate freight-management measures, turning controls, or designated facilities could be considered to improve safety and operational efficiency.,Introduce appropriate traffic-calming measures. Speed-management treatments, road markings, and junction-design measures should be considered at locations with substantial pedestrian--vehicular interaction.,Strengthen signal control and traffic management. Where justified by traffic demand and junction conditions, coordinated signal-control and traffic-monitoring measures could support more effective management of directional traffic flows.,Coordinate peripheral land use and transport planning. Future development around the junction should be coordinated with transport infrastructure provision to reduce roadside encroachment, irregular parking, and access conflicts as surrounding development intensifies.

Overall, Humnabad Ring Road Circle is an important peripheral junction characterized by substantial pedestrian and two-wheeler activity together with IPT, buses, private vehicles, and freight movements. Coordinated improvements in pedestrian safety, traffic management, public and intermediate transport integration, and surrounding land-use management could support safer and more efficient mobility as the surrounding urban area develops.

Figure 51 presents the observed traffic and pedestrian movements at Aland Ring Road Circle in Kalaburagi. A total of 2,627 road-user movements were recorded during the morning peak period, with substantial contributions from pedestrians, two-wheelers, Intermediate Public Transport (IPT), buses, and freight vehicles. Although movements were distributed across all four approaches, the observed traffic composition demonstrates substantial interaction among different road users at this peripheral junction.

Two-wheelers and pedestrians constituted the two largest shares of observed movements, accounting for 35.0\% and 34.2\% of the total, respectively. Together, they represented approximately 69.2\% of all observed movements at the junction. This substantial presence of walking and two-wheelers highlights the importance of accommodating both non-motorized and personal motorized mobility. Where pedestrian crossings, continuous footpaths, and other appropriate facilities are inadequate, pedestrians may experience greater interaction with motorized traffic and reduced safety.

Auto-rickshaws accounted for 10.0\% of the total observed movements, while buses represented 5.0\%, demonstrating the importance of both IPT and formal public transport. Where designated IPT stopping areas, bus bays, shelters, and pedestrian connections are limited, roadside stopping and passenger interchange can create operational inefficiencies and additional interactions with other road users.

Freight vehicles, including trucks, light goods vehicles (LGVs), and heavy goods vehicles (HGVs), accounted for 4.0\% of the observed movements. Although freight traffic did not constitute a dominant share, its coexistence with substantial pedestrian and two-wheeler activity creates important safety and traffic-management considerations. Cyclists accounted for only 1.3\% of the observed movements, indicating comparatively limited cycling activity. These percentages represent shares of observed road-user movements rather than passenger modal shares.

Directional analysis indicates that the north approach carried the highest overall movement volume, with 715 recorded movements, followed closely by the south approach with 697 movements. The west and east approaches recorded 632 and 583 movements, respectively. This distribution demonstrates multidirectional movement, with somewhat greater demand on the north and south approaches.

Overall, the traffic characteristics at Aland Ring Road Circle demonstrate that substantial pedestrian, two-wheeler, IPT, bus, private vehicle, and freight movements coexist at the junction. Improving pedestrian facilities, public and intermediate transport organization, cycling safety, and freight management could therefore help align infrastructure provision with the observed traffic characteristics, as summarized in Table 11.

The relatively balanced directional distribution shown in Figure 51 does not eliminate the need for mode-specific infrastructure. The substantial presence of pedestrians and two-wheelers, together with IPT, buses, and freight vehicles, indicates that infrastructure and traffic-management measures should accommodate the different operational and safety requirements of these road users.

Figure 52 summarizes the principal traffic characteristics at Aland Ring Road Circle during the morning peak period. A total of 2,627 observed road-user movements were recorded. Two-wheelers constituted the largest share of observed movements (35.0\%), followed closely by pedestrians (34.2\%), while cars, auto-rickshaws, buses, freight vehicles, and cyclists accounted for 10.5\%, 10.0\%, 5.0\%, 4.0\%, and 1.3\%, respectively. Directional analysis identifies the north approach as the busiest, with 715 recorded movements, followed by the south approach with 697 movements. The west and east approaches carried 632 and 583 movements, respectively. The substantial interaction among pedestrians, two-wheelers, IPT, buses, and freight vehicles highlights the importance of improved pedestrian crossings, appropriate channelization, speed management, and multimodal traffic organization at this peripheral junction.

Based on the observed traffic characteristics, priority measures may include the following:

Enhance pedestrian infrastructure. Provide clearly marked or raised pedestrian crossings, pedestrian refuge islands, adequate lighting, and signalized crossing facilities where warranted by pedestrian demand, particularly along the higher-volume approaches.,Provide organized IPT and bus facilities. Develop designated stopping, pickup, and drop-off areas for auto-rickshaws and buses, together with appropriate signage and pedestrian connections, to reduce roadside conflicts and improve passenger interchange.,Improve two-wheeler safety. Consider appropriate lane organization, road markings, and speed-management measures to reduce conflicts involving two-wheelers, which constitute the largest motorized group observed at the junction.,Manage freight movements. Where interactions between freight vehicles and peak-period local traffic are significant, appropriate access-management, turning arrangements, or other freight-management measures could be considered to improve safety and operational efficiency.,Improve cycling infrastructure. Where roadway conditions and demand permit, safer cycling facilities, appropriate signage, and bicycle parking may be provided to support non-motorized access.,Strengthen signal control and traffic management. Where warranted by traffic demand and junction conditions, coordinated traffic-signal and traffic-monitoring measures could support more effective management of heterogeneous traffic flows.

Overall, Aland Ring Road Circle is characterized by substantial interaction among pedestrians, two-wheelers, IPT, buses, private vehicles, and freight traffic. Improvements in inclusive infrastructure, traffic management, and multimodal integration could strengthen the junction's role as a safer and more efficient peripheral mobility node.

The comparative analysis of the nine surveyed locations reveals substantial spatial variation in traffic composition and directional movement patterns across Kalaburagi. Pedestrians accounted for approximately 34.2--47.9\% of the total observed road-user movements, representing the largest share at most surveyed locations. Two-wheelers also constituted a substantial proportion, ranging from approximately 26.0\% to 35.0\%. In contrast, buses accounted for approximately 0.6--5.0\% of the observed movements. These percentages represent shares of observed road-user movements rather than passenger modal shares.

The findings further indicate that mobility characteristics vary considerably across the city. Central commercial areas such as Shah Bazaar exhibited particularly high pedestrian activity, whereas the Railway Station Area and Main Bus Stand combined substantial pedestrian movement with private and intermediate transport activity. Sedam Road and the Ring Road junctions recorded comparatively greater freight and bus movements, while Humnabad and Aland Ring Road Circles exhibited substantial pedestrian and two-wheeler activity together with buses, IPT, private vehicles, and freight traffic. Rama Mandir Circle recorded the highest overall movement volume among the surveyed locations and exhibited a particularly heterogeneous mix of road users.

These results indicate that the mobility challenges observed in Kalaburagi cannot be interpreted solely in terms of roadway capacity. Rather, the surveyed locations demonstrate interactions among heterogeneous traffic, limited pedestrian and cycling infrastructure, public and intermediate transport operations, and the allocation of available road space among different users. These findings are consistent with broader sustainable urban mobility principles emphasizing the importance of accommodating pedestrians, cyclists, public transport, and other road users within an integrated transport system [3-71].

The comparative traffic volume analysis evaluates traffic composition and directional patterns across nine surveyed locations in Kalaburagi using field-based TVC data collected in 2025. The analysis identifies recurring patterns of substantial pedestrian activity, high two-wheeler use, important IPT activity, relatively limited bus movements at several locations, and interaction between motorized and non-motorized road users. These findings provide an empirical basis for prioritizing infrastructure improvements and integrated mobility planning in Kalaburagi, as summarized in Table 12.

Operational traffic indicators provide a complementary assessment of traffic conditions across the surveyed locations. The DDR, PCU-based traffic flow, V/C ratio, and PVCI are used to compare directional concentration, heterogeneous vehicular traffic load, roadway capacity utilization, and the relative presence of pedestrians in relation to motorized traffic. The comparative results are summarized in Table 13.

The DDR indicates a relatively balanced distribution of observed movements among the four approaches at most surveyed locations, although the north approach records the highest share at all nine locations. The degree of directional concentration nevertheless varies. Shah Bazaar and Market Areas exhibit the strongest northward concentration (0.314), followed by Super Market Circle (0.307) and Rama Mandir Circle (0.303). In contrast, SVP Circle and Sedam Road and Ring Road Junctions show comparatively smaller differences among the four approaches, indicating a more balanced directional distribution. These variations may be associated with differences in surrounding land use, activity intensity, transport-node functions, and road-network configuration.

The PCU-based assessment identifies Rama Mandir Circle as the most heavily loaded location, with a reported vehicular flow of 2,225.5~PCU/h, followed by Aland Ring Road Circle at 1,716.3~PCU/h and Sedam Road and Ring Road Junctions at 1,640~PCU/h. SVP Circle records the lowest reported PCU-based flow, at 1,120.5 PCU/h.

The corresponding V/C ratios demonstrate substantial differences in roadway capacity utilization. Shah Bazaar and Market Areas record the highest V/C ratio (0.979), indicating that the observed peak-hour vehicular demand approached the adopted practical capacity. Rama Mandir Circle (0.742) and Super Market Circle (0.737) also exhibit comparatively greater capacity utilization, whereas SVP Circle (0.448) and Humnabad Ring Road Circle (0.408) remained well below the adopted practical capacity during the observed period.

The PVCI also varies considerably across the surveyed locations. Because the index used in this study is calculated as the ratio of pedestrian volume to motorized vehicular volume, higher values indicate a greater relative presence of pedestrians in relation to motorized traffic rather than directly measured conflict frequency. Shah Bazaar and Market Areas record the highest PVCI (0.957), followed by the Kalaburagi Railway Station Area (0.725), SVP Circle (0.722), and the Main Bus Stand Vicinity (0.705). These locations combine substantial pedestrian activity with motorized traffic and therefore require particular attention to pedestrian crossings, continuous footpaths, speed management, and junction design. Comparatively lower PVCI values are recorded at Aland Ring Road Circle (0.530), Humnabad Ring Road Circle (0.585), Rama Mandir Circle (0.591), and Sedam Road and Ring Road Junctions (0.593).

Overall, the comparative analysis demonstrates substantial location-specific variation in traffic composition, directional concentration, roadway utilization, and pedestrian--vehicular interaction. Commercial and major transport locations such as Shah Bazaar and the Railway Station Area exhibit particularly high pedestrian-related indicators, whereas several peripheral junctions show lower PVCI values together with substantial two-wheeler, public transport, and freight activity. These differences reinforce the need for location-specific interventions rather than a uniform citywide approach. Priority measures include improved pedestrian and cycling infrastructure, stronger public transport and IPT integration, appropriate freight management, junction-specific traffic control, and infrastructure improvements tailored to the observed traffic characteristics of each location.

A total of 20 semi-structured interviews with key stakeholders, including city engineers, transport officials, auto-rickshaw drivers, and local residents, provided additional qualitative insights into Kalaburagi's urban mobility challenges [75]. The interviews identified recurring concerns related to inadequate road and pedestrian infrastructure, traffic-management deficiencies, limited public transport integration, insufficient Intermediate Public Transport (IPT) facilities, and road-safety problems.

The stakeholder interviews revealed several common priorities. City engineers emphasized inadequate funding for road maintenance and pedestrian infrastructure and identified the need for improved infrastructure monitoring. Transport officials highlighted traffic-enforcement challenges, limited public transport integration, and the need for better route coordination and appropriate Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS). Auto-rickshaw drivers identified recurrent congestion and the lack of designated stands as important operational concerns, while residents emphasized narrow footpaths, inadequate pedestrian crossings, intersection delays, and road-safety concerns. The principal findings are summarized in Table 14.

The qualitative findings reinforce several issues identified through the field observations and quantitative traffic analysis. In particular, concerns regarding pedestrian infrastructure, traffic congestion, IPT organization, public transport integration, and intersection management recur across different stakeholder groups. The convergence between observed traffic conditions and stakeholder perceptions provides additional support for location-specific and user-oriented interventions to improve mobility, accessibility, and safety in Kalaburagi.

Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) were conducted with 40 community members across four groups representing women, older adults, young adults, and adults above 40 years of age to obtain qualitative insights into everyday mobility challenges in Kalaburagi [76]. As summarized in Table 15, participants identified several recurring barriers to safe, accessible, and reliable urban mobility, including damaged or discontinuous footpaths, inadequate pedestrian crossings, insufficient street lighting, limited first- and last-mile connectivity, public transport accessibility constraints, and personal-security concerns.

Participants also reported infrequent public transport services, unsafe traffic behaviour around pedestrian crossings and intersections, inadequate NMT facilities, parking-related problems, and traffic congestion. Although the relative importance of these concerns varied among participant groups, pedestrian safety, accessibility, infrastructure quality, public transport provision, and traffic management emerged as recurring themes.

Participants proposed several user-centred interventions, including improved pedestrian facilities, better street lighting, safer pedestrian routes and crossings, more accessible public transport services, improved cycling facilities, better parking and intersection management, and stronger traffic enforcement.

The FGD findings reveal both group-specific and recurring mobility concerns. Women particularly emphasized personal security, street lighting, pedestrian safety, and first- and last-mile connectivity, whereas older adults placed greater emphasis on footpath quality, resting facilities, and public transport accessibility; these themes are also consistent with broader guidance on women-responsive and age-friendly urban environments [77-78]. Young adults highlighted public transport frequency, cycling facilities, and traffic enforcement, while adults above 40 years of age emphasized congestion, intersection safety, parking management, and pedestrian facilities. Despite these differences, pedestrian safety, public transport accessibility, infrastructure quality, and traffic management emerged as common concerns across the discussion groups.

Based on the FGD findings, the principal mobility challenges and corresponding user-oriented interventions are summarized in Table 16.

Table 16 synthesizes the principal mobility challenges identified through the FGDs and the corresponding user-oriented interventions and policy implications. The findings indicate that different demographic groups experience distinct but interconnected mobility constraints. Women and older adults placed particular emphasis on safety and accessibility, while young adults emphasized public transport availability, cycling facilities, and traffic enforcement. Adults above 40 years of age placed greater emphasis on congestion, intersection safety, parking management, and pedestrian infrastructure.

Overall, the FGD findings demonstrate that pedestrian safety, public transport accessibility, infrastructure quality, personal security, and traffic management are recurring concerns across different user groups. Targeted interventions that respond to these different user needs could therefore contribute to a more inclusive, accessible, and sustainable urban mobility system in Kalaburagi.

The TVC results reveal substantial spatial variation in observed mobility demand across the surveyed locations in Kalaburagi. Rama Mandir Circle recorded the highest total movement volume, with 3,329 observed road-user movements during the survey period, followed by the Kalaburagi Railway Station Area with 3,108 movements and Shah Bazaar and Market Areas with 3,038 movements. These results indicate comparatively intensive peak-hour activity at major commercial, transport, and multimodal nodes. The concentration of observed movements at these locations demonstrates that traffic pressure is not spatially uniform across Kalaburagi and that high-activity urban areas require greater attention to pedestrian facilities, traffic organization, and multimodal accessibility. This finding is consistent with broader discussions of urban transport challenges in Indian cities, where heterogeneous traffic and intensive urban activity place substantial demands on available transport infrastructure [3-19].

The analysis of road-user composition demonstrates the substantial presence of pedestrians within Kalaburagi's urban mobility system. The highest pedestrian share was recorded at Shah Bazaar and Market Areas (47.9\%), followed by the Kalaburagi Railway Station Area (41.3\%) and SVP Circle (40.7\%). These results demonstrate substantial pedestrian activity at commercial areas, transport interchanges, and other high-activity locations. Where pedestrian demand is not adequately accommodated through continuous footpaths, safe crossings, and appropriate street design, interactions between pedestrians and motorized traffic may increase [59-70]. Two-wheelers constituted the largest motorized vehicle category across the surveyed locations. Their highest share of observed movements was recorded at Aland Ring Road Circle (35.0\%), followed by the Kalaburagi Railway Station Area (30.6\%) and SVP Circle (30.0\%). This widespread presence of two-wheelers indicates their importance within the observed traffic composition across both central and peripheral locations. It should be noted that pedestrian and cyclist counts represent individual movements, whereas motorized categories represent vehicle movements. Therefore, the reported percentages represent shares of observed road-user movements and should not be interpreted as passenger modal shares.

PCU analysis provides a common basis for comparing heterogeneous motorized traffic conditions across the surveyed locations. Based on the reported PCU values, Rama Mandir Circle recorded the highest PCU-based vehicular flow, at 2,225.5~PCU/h, followed by Aland Ring Road Circle at 1,716.3~PCU/h and Sedam Road and Ring Road Junctions at 1,640~PCU/h. Higher PCU-based flows indicate greater equivalent motorized traffic demand and are particularly relevant at locations where two-wheelers, cars, auto-rickshaws, buses, and freight vehicles operate within the same road space. The observed variation among the surveyed locations further demonstrates that vehicular demand and operational conditions differ substantially across the urban network [21-80].

The V/C ratio provides an indication of the extent to which observed vehicular demand utilizes the adopted practical roadway capacity. Among the surveyed locations, Shah Bazaar and Market Areas recorded the highest V/C ratio (0.979), followed by Rama Mandir Circle (0.742) and Super Market Circle (0.737). The V/C ratio at Shah Bazaar indicates that observed peak-hour vehicular demand approached the adopted practical capacity, suggesting substantial operational pressure at this dense commercial location. Super Market Circle and Rama Mandir Circle also exhibited comparatively high levels of capacity utilization. In contrast, SVP Circle (0.448) and Humnabad Ring Road Circle (0.408) remained well below their adopted practical capacities during the observed period. These variations demonstrate that roadway capacity utilization is spatially uneven across Kalaburagi. Consequently, traffic-management responses should be adapted to the operational characteristics of individual locations rather than based on a uniform citywide approach [81-85].

The study-specific PVCI provides a comparative indication of pedestrian presence relative to motorized vehicular traffic. Based on the ratio of pedestrian volume to motorized vehicular volume, Shah Bazaar and Market Areas recorded the highest PVCI (0.957), followed by the Kalaburagi Railway Station Area (0.725), SVP Circle (0.722), and the Main Bus Stand Vicinity (0.705). Higher PVCI values indicate a greater relative presence of pedestrians in relation to motorized traffic and should not be interpreted as a direct measure of observed conflict events or crash risk. Nevertheless, the relatively high values recorded at commercial areas and transport interchanges indicate locations where substantial pedestrian and motorized movements coexist and where pedestrian--vehicular interactions require particular attention. The findings therefore support the provision of appropriately controlled pedestrian crossings, continuous footpaths, pedestrian refuge facilities, and traffic-calming measures at locations characterized by substantial pedestrian and motorized activity [22-88].

Overall, the findings demonstrate that Kalaburagi's surveyed transport locations experience substantially different mobility and operational conditions depending on surrounding activity patterns, transport function, traffic composition, and infrastructure provision. Commercial and major transport-interchange areas generally exhibit substantial pedestrian activity and heterogeneous traffic interaction, whereas peripheral locations combine pedestrian and two-wheeler activity with IPT, buses, private vehicles, and freight movements. The observed patterns indicate that mobility demand, roadway utilization, pedestrian--vehicular interaction, and infrastructure requirements vary considerably among locations. These findings reinforce the importance of improved public transport integration, appropriate provision for NMT, safer street design, and coordinated transport and land-use planning [59-89]. Consequently, transport interventions in Kalaburagi should be location-specific rather than uniform across the city. High-pedestrian commercial areas require pedestrian-priority measures and appropriate traffic calming; major transport nodes require improved interchange and first- and last-mile connectivity; and peripheral junctions require traffic-management measures that accommodate local access together with public transport, private vehicles, and freight movements.

The findings from the Kalaburagi case contribute to the broader sustainable mobility literature by demonstrating that mobility conditions in a Tier-II Indian city are shaped not only by infrastructure provision but also by the interaction of substantial pedestrian activity, heterogeneous motorized traffic, IPT, accessibility constraints, and institutional coordination. These characteristics complicate the direct application of mobility-planning approaches developed primarily for larger metropolitan contexts and highlight the importance of accounting for local socio-spatial and institutional conditions [2-92].

The results further demonstrate the importance of treating informal and intermediate transport services as functional components of urban mobility systems rather than as peripheral elements. In cities where formal public transport coverage is limited, IPT can play an important role in first- and last-mile connectivity and everyday accessibility, although its effective contribution depends on appropriate regulation, infrastructure, and integration with other transport modes [73-95].

By relating localized mobility patterns---including substantial pedestrian activity, considerable two-wheeler presence, heterogeneous traffic conditions, infrastructure deficiencies, and institutional fragmentation---to broader debates on sustainable and equitable urban mobility, this study supports a more context-sensitive interpretation of mobility transitions in rapidly developing Indian cities. The findings suggest that sustainable mobility frameworks for Tier-II cities should more explicitly incorporate informality, accessibility, multimodal interaction, and institutional capacity alongside conventional infrastructure and environmental considerations [20-97].

The findings have several practical implications for urban transport planning in Kalaburagi and comparable mid-sized Indian cities. First, they highlight the importance of stronger institutional coordination among municipal authorities, transport agencies, traffic-management bodies, and land-use planning institutions. Improved coordination could reduce fragmented implementation, strengthen multimodal integration, and provide greater continuity between transport planning and infrastructure investment [90-98].

Second, the substantial pedestrian activity observed across the surveyed locations, together with the important presence of two-wheelers and IPT, highlights the need for transport infrastructure and services that respond to heterogeneous mobility conditions. Planning should therefore consider pedestrian accessibility, public transport integration, IPT organization, and first- and last-mile connectivity as interconnected components of the urban mobility system rather than as isolated interventions [51-99].

Finally, the study highlights the value of context-sensitive and data-supported mobility planning. Periodic Traffic Volume Counts (TVCs), pedestrian assessments, public transport monitoring, and structured travel-behaviour surveys could provide a stronger empirical basis for identifying changing mobility needs and evaluating transport interventions. For Tier-II cities, such approaches should be adapted to local infrastructure capacity, public transport provision, IPT dependence, accessibility conditions, land-use patterns, and institutional capacity [31-101].

Based on the quantitative traffic analysis, field observations, stakeholder interviews, and Focus Group Discussions (FGDs), the following priority measures are recommended for improving urban mobility in Kalaburagi:

Strengthen infrastructure investment.,Introduce Intelligent Transportation Systems.,Establish designated IPT facilities.,Optimize traffic-signal operations.,Improve pedestrian infrastructure.,Improve public transport integration.

The review of planning and policy documents relevant to Kalaburagi, including the City Development Plan (CDP), guidelines issued by the Directorate of Urban Land Transport (DULT), and relevant national and state urban-mobility policy directions, identifies both opportunities and gaps in the promotion of walkability and sustainable urban mobility.

The CDP places considerable emphasis on road-network development, infrastructure expansion, and transport connectivity; however, pedestrian infrastructure and non-motorized transport (NMT) receive comparatively limited attention. This indicates the need for a more integrated planning approach incorporating continuous footpaths, safe cycling infrastructure, pedestrian-priority measures, and walkable mixed-use environments [55-108].

The DULT Guidelines provide more detailed design guidance for footpaths, cycle tracks, pedestrian crossings, street furniture, and other NMT-related facilities, providing an important technical basis for improving street design and pedestrian accessibility [109].

Taken together, the document review suggests that future planning in Kalaburagi should strengthen the integration of NMT considerations within local development planning and apply relevant street-design standards consistently in urban infrastructure projects. Improved integration among public transport, walking, cycling, and IPT could further strengthen first- and last-mile accessibility and support safer and more inclusive urban mobility. The key findings from the reviewed planning and policy documents are summarized in Table 17.

Effective governance and coherent policy frameworks are essential for the sustainable planning, implementation, and management of urban transport infrastructure and services [90-98]. In Kalaburagi, field observations and stakeholder findings suggest several institutional and policy-related challenges, including fragmented responsibilities, limited inter-agency coordination, and insufficient integration among transport, land-use, and infrastructure planning processes. These challenges can affect project implementation, public transport integration, pedestrian infrastructure provision, and traffic management across the city [3].

Urban transport planning and management in Kalaburagi involve several agencies with responsibilities for public transport, road infrastructure, traffic regulation, municipal services, and urban development. Where coordination among these institutions is limited, fragmented responsibilities and decision-making can reduce the effectiveness of transport planning and project implementation [3-98].

The Kalyana Karnataka Road Transport Corporation (KKRTC) is an important provider of public bus services in Kalaburagi and the surrounding region [69]. Its services contribute to public transport provision and can help reduce dependence on private motorized travel where adequate service frequency, coverage, accessibility, and integration are provided [13-55].

The Kalaburagi City Corporation (KCC) is the principal urban local authority responsible for municipal administration and a range of urban infrastructure and public-service functions. Its responsibilities relevant to mobility include road and street infrastructure, public-space management, pedestrian facilities, and coordination with state-level agencies on urban-development projects. KCC therefore plays an important role in the implementation of pedestrian, NMT, traffic-management, and local infrastructure improvements [98].

Traffic police authorities are responsible for traffic-law enforcement, regulation of vehicular movement, intersection management, and road-safety measures. Their role is particularly important at high-demand locations such as transport hubs, commercial areas, and major junctions, where effective enforcement, signal management, and coordination with municipal agencies can contribute to safer and more efficient traffic operations [55-105].

The Karnataka Urban Infrastructure Development and Finance Corporation (KUIDFC) supports urban infrastructure development in Karnataka through financing, technical assistance, and project-management support [110]. It works with urban local bodies on infrastructure projects involving roads and other urban-development sectors, including projects supported through state and national urban-development programmes [110].

The involvement of multiple institutions can create coordination challenges when transport projects are planned or implemented independently. Fragmented responsibilities may limit the integration of public transport, road infrastructure, pedestrian systems, Intermediate Public Transport (IPT), parking management, and traffic control, thereby reducing the effectiveness of citywide mobility planning [3-98].

Effective urban transport planning also requires coordinated participation among municipal authorities, transport agencies, traffic-management bodies, local communities, and public and intermediate transport operators. Improved institutional coordination could include clearer allocation of responsibilities, formal inter-agency working arrangements, regular mobility-data sharing, joint project development, and joint review of major transport and infrastructure projects. Such arrangements could help ensure that road infrastructure, public transport, NMT, IPT, parking management, traffic operations, and land-use development are treated as interconnected components of the urban mobility system rather than as isolated interventions [90-98].

Intermediate Public Transport (IPT), particularly auto-rickshaws, forms an important component of first- and last-mile mobility in Kalaburagi. Where designated stands, stopping areas, and coordinated interchange facilities are inadequate, IPT operations may contribute to roadside congestion and operational disorder. Stronger integration between IPT and formal public transport could therefore improve passenger accessibility, interchange organization, and traffic management [73-95].

A comprehensive mobility-planning framework could provide a common strategic basis for coordinating long-term transport investment, public transport routes, NMT infrastructure, first- and last-mile connectivity, parking management, traffic operations, and future urban growth. Strengthening such a framework could help reduce fragmented infrastructure development and improve continuity in citywide mobility planning [71-89].

Improved urban mobility data collection and information sharing could further strengthen evidence-based planning and traffic management. Where appropriate, traffic monitoring, real-time information systems, and Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) could support inter-agency coordination, joint project evaluation, and more responsive urban transport management [31-100].

Although Kalaburagi has benefited from national and state urban-development programmes, including the Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT) and state-level smart-city-oriented development initiatives, the implementation of transport-related measures remains uneven [12-111]. Urban-development investments have supported improvements in infrastructure and public services; however, field observations indicate that pedestrian facilities, cycling infrastructure, public transport amenities, and first- and last-mile connectivity require greater attention.

National urban transport policy directions emphasize public transport, non-motorized transport (NMT), multimodal integration, and stronger coordination between land-use and transport planning. In Kalaburagi, however, field observations indicate that several infrastructure interventions remain strongly oriented toward motorized traffic movement. Road-widening and vehicle-oriented improvements, where implemented without corresponding pedestrian and cycling measures, may reduce the space and priority available to non-motorized users. This pattern is consistent with broader challenges identified in the literature concerning the implementation of inclusive and sustainable transport policies in rapidly urbanizing cities [2].

Investment priorities also appear uneven across different transport modes. Pedestrian and cycling infrastructure, public transport facilities, and the integration of Intermediate Public Transport (IPT) remain comparatively underdeveloped in several surveyed areas. Strengthening investment in these modes could improve accessibility, enhance multimodal connectivity, and support more sustainable urban mobility [3-92].

Weak or inconsistent enforcement of transport regulations can contribute to operational and safety problems in urban transport systems. Field observations in Kalaburagi identified traffic-rule violations, roadside encroachments, irregular parking, inadequate protection of pedestrian space, and poorly managed stopping activities at several high-demand locations. These conditions reduce the effective use of available road space and increase interactions among pedestrians, cyclists, public transport users, and motorized vehicles [103-105].

Regulatory challenges are also evident in the management of Intermediate Public Transport (IPT). Field observations and stakeholder findings indicate concerns related to irregular stopping and inadequate designated IPT stands at several locations. Improved regulatory oversight, designated IPT facilities, clearly managed stopping areas, vehicle and driver compliance measures, and stronger integration with formal public transport could improve both service organization and traffic management [73-94].

More effective enforcement should therefore be combined with infrastructure and institutional improvements rather than treated as an isolated traffic-control measure. Clear regulations, appropriate street design, coordinated monitoring, and stakeholder engagement are needed to support safer and more efficient mobility across the city [70-106].

The observed mobility conditions in Kalaburagi indicate several areas requiring improvement in relation to the broader objectives of Sustainable Development Goal 11 (SDG 11). In particular, SDG Target 11.2 emphasizes access to safe, affordable, accessible, and sustainable transport systems, while Target 11.3 promotes inclusive and participatory urban planning [72].

Field observations, stakeholder interviews, and Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) indicate gaps in pedestrian infrastructure, public transport integration, first- and last-mile connectivity, traffic management, and accessibility. These conditions are particularly relevant to users who depend on walking, public transport, and Intermediate Public Transport (IPT), reinforcing the importance of more inclusive and accessible mobility planning [3-52].

To support progress toward SDG 11, Kalaburagi should prioritize investment in non-motorized transport (NMT), improve public transport and IPT integration, strengthen pedestrian accessibility, and expand opportunities for community participation in transport planning and decision-making. Such measures could help align local mobility interventions with broader objectives of inclusive, safe, accessible, and sustainable urban development [72].

National urban transport policy directions in India emphasize the movement of people rather than vehicles, stronger integration between land-use and transport planning, improved public transport, non-motorized transport (NMT), multimodal connectivity, and equitable access to urban mobility [71]. These principles provide an important policy basis for addressing the mobility challenges observed in Kalaburagi.

However, the observed transport conditions indicate gaps between these broader policy objectives and local implementation. Fragmented infrastructure provision, limited multimodal integration, inadequate pedestrian and cycling facilities, and weak first- and last-mile connectivity reduce the effectiveness of the overall mobility system. A more comprehensive mobility-planning approach could help coordinate public transport, road infrastructure, NMT, IPT, parking management, traffic operations, and future land-use development.

Strengthening institutional capacity for urban mobility planning could further improve coordination among municipal, transport, planning, and traffic-management authorities. Such a mechanism could support the preparation and implementation of integrated mobility strategies, facilitate inter-agency data sharing, and promote more systematic prioritization of public transport and NMT investment.

Key institutional priorities include:

developing and implementing an integrated mobility plan consistent with relevant national and state urban transport guidelines;,strengthening coordination among local authorities, transport agencies, planning bodies, and technology providers;,prioritizing public transport, pedestrian, cycling, and first- and last-mile infrastructure; and,expanding data-driven and participatory approaches to urban mobility planning.

Strengthening institutional capacity for urban mobility planning could represent an important step toward a more integrated and sustainable transport system in Kalaburagi. Improved coordination could also enhance the city's ability to align local transport investments with relevant national and state urban-development programmes and support the transition toward a safer, more accessible, efficient, and liveable urban environment.

Kalaburagi has benefited from national urban-development initiatives, particularly the Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT). Relevant national transport and infrastructure programmes and policies also provide broader opportunities for improving pedestrian accessibility, multimodal integration, public transport, and sustainable urban mobility. The local mobility assessment indicates that pedestrian infrastructure, cycling facilities, public transport integration, and first- and last-mile connectivity require greater attention within future urban-development investments.

The findings of this study demonstrate substantial pedestrian activity across the surveyed locations, with pedestrians accounting for approximately 34.2--47.9\% of observed road-user movements. Bus vehicles accounted for approximately 0.6--5.0\% of the observed movements. Because pedestrian counts represent individual movements whereas bus counts represent vehicle movements, these percentages should not be interpreted as passenger modal shares. Nevertheless, the observed patterns highlight the importance of strengthening pedestrian infrastructure, public transport accessibility, and multimodal integration in future urban-development investments.

Smart mobility and ITS also offer opportunities to improve traffic management and operational efficiency. Applications such as traffic monitoring, coordinated or adaptive signal control, mobility-data integration, and real-time passenger information could complement physical infrastructure improvements. However, technological interventions should be implemented alongside pedestrian, public transport, and NMT improvements rather than treated as substitutes for them [31-100].

National infrastructure-planning initiatives such as PM GatiShakti may provide a broader framework for improving coordination among road, rail, freight, and other infrastructure investments. Its GIS-based planning approach can support integrated infrastructure planning and the identification of connectivity gaps [112]. In the Kalaburagi context, similar spatial-analysis approaches could assist in identifying congestion-prone locations, high-pedestrian-demand areas, poorly integrated IPT facilities, and first- and last-mile connectivity gaps around major transport nodes.

National policy directions on transit-oriented development also provide relevant principles for integrating land use, public transport, pedestrian infrastructure, and non-motorized transport around major transit locations. Such principles may be considered around major transport nodes in Kalaburagi where appropriate to local transport demand, land-use conditions, and infrastructure capacity [89-114].

Electric-mobility policies similarly provide opportunities to support cleaner urban transport. Given the substantial presence of two-wheelers and the important role of auto-rickshaws in the observed traffic composition, gradual electrification of suitable two-wheelers, IPT vehicles, and public transport fleets, supported by appropriate charging infrastructure, could contribute to lower transport-related emissions. Such measures should complement rather than replace improvements in public transport, walking, cycling, and overall mobility management [115-116].

Overall, stronger alignment between local mobility planning and relevant national urban-development and transport programmes could support more integrated infrastructure planning and sustainable mobility interventions. The potential contributions of selected national programmes and policies to Kalaburagi's mobility system are summarized in Table 18.

A phased implementation strategy is proposed to address Kalaburagi's mobility challenges in a coordinated and realistic manner. Based on the empirical findings and relevant urban-mobility policy directions, the proposed interventions can be organized into short-, medium-, and long-term priorities according to implementation complexity, institutional requirements, investment needs, and anticipated mobility benefits.

In the short term, strengthening institutional coordination should be a priority for improving transport planning and implementation in Kalaburagi. Urban mobility involves several agencies, including the Kalaburagi City Corporation (KCC) and the Directorate of Urban Land Transport (DULT), with responsibilities related to local infrastructure, street design, transport planning, and mobility policy. Where institutional responsibilities and coordination mechanisms are insufficiently defined, fragmented decision-making and inconsistencies in project implementation may occur.

Such coordination challenges can affect the planning and implementation of NMT, pedestrian improvements, traffic-management measures, and other mobility projects. Strengthening inter-agency coordination could therefore improve consistency, accountability, and continuity in transport planning [90-98].

The following short-term measures are recommended:

clarify institutional roles and responsibilities among agencies involved in urban mobility planning and implementation;,establish regular inter-agency coordination mechanisms and joint working arrangements;,promote consistent street-design and mobility-planning standards across infrastructure projects [70-109]; and,initiate or strengthen a comprehensive mobility-planning process with stakeholder participation to guide integrated urban transport development [71-89].

These measures require comparatively limited physical investment but could provide an important institutional foundation for subsequent public transport, NMT, traffic-management, and infrastructure improvements.

Medium-term interventions should focus on strengthening public transport services, multimodal integration, institutional capacity, and technology-supported traffic management. Building on the short-term governance reforms, these measures would require greater investment and stronger coordination among municipal, transport, traffic-management, and planning agencies.

A major priority is to strengthen city-focused bus services through improved route planning, service frequency, passenger facilities, and, where feasible, GPS-based vehicle tracking and real-time passenger information. More reliable and accessible bus services could strengthen first- and last-mile connectivity and provide a more attractive alternative to private motorized travel [49-101].

Institutional capacity could also be strengthened through a dedicated mobility-planning and coordination function within the existing local governance framework. Rather than operating as an additional isolated agency, such a function could support continuity in transport planning, facilitate inter-agency collaboration, coordinate data collection and project implementation, and monitor progress toward citywide mobility objectives.

ITS could be progressively introduced at selected high-demand junctions, including major commercial areas, the Main Bus Stand vicinity, and appropriate Ring Road intersections. Measures such as coordinated or adaptive traffic signals, real-time traffic monitoring, and data-supported junction management could improve operational efficiency where justified by local traffic conditions [31-45].

Medium-term planning should also strengthen integration among bus services, IPT, walking, cycling, and major transport interchanges. Coordinated interchange facilities, designated IPT stopping areas, improved pedestrian access, and passenger-information systems could enhance the effectiveness of the multimodal transport system [71-95].

Collectively, these medium-term measures could strengthen Kalaburagi's urban transport system through public transport improvement, multimodal integration, institutional capacity development, and technology-supported traffic management.

Long-term strategies should focus on integrated land-use and transport planning, connected NMT networks, cleaner vehicle technologies, and the gradual transition toward a more accessible and environmentally sustainable mobility system. These interventions require sustained institutional commitment, long-term investment, and coordination between transport infrastructure and future urban development.

A key long-term priority is the development and implementation of an integrated mobility-planning framework incorporating appropriate Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) principles where locally applicable. Such an approach could coordinate land use, public transport, pedestrian and cycling networks, interchange facilities, and urban design to support more accessible development around major activity and transport nodes [47-114].

The establishment of connected NMT corridors should also form part of the city's long-term mobility strategy. Continuous pedestrian routes, safe cycling facilities, shaded walking environments, and improved connections to public transport nodes could strengthen first- and last-mile accessibility and reduce barriers to non-motorized travel. Priority corridors may include major commercial areas, institutional zones, transport-interchange areas, and other locations with substantial pedestrian and cycling activity [51-117].

The gradual transition toward cleaner mobility technologies represents another long-term opportunity. Electrification of suitable buses, auto-rickshaws, two-wheelers, and other vehicle fleets, supported by appropriately located charging infrastructure, could contribute to reducing transport-related emissions. Such measures should complement rather than replace improvements in public transport, walking, cycling, and overall mobility management [115-116].

Urban greening could also be integrated with long-term street and transport improvements. Street trees, shaded pedestrian corridors, and appropriately designed green infrastructure could improve pedestrian comfort and local environmental quality when incorporated into pedestrian, cycling, and public-space improvements [118].

Long-term investments should also strengthen the integration of urban development with major transport nodes, particularly around the Kalaburagi Railway Station and other important public transport interchanges. Improved pedestrian access, organized IPT facilities, public transport connectivity, appropriate mixed-use development, and well-designed public spaces could enhance the role of these locations as integrated mobility hubs [47-89].

Collectively, these long-term interventions could support the gradual transition toward a more integrated, people-oriented, accessible, and environmentally sustainable urban transport system in Kalaburagi [20-97]. Their effectiveness would depend on coordinated implementation across institutions, consistent investment, and continuous monitoring of changing mobility needs.

Several limitations should be considered when interpreting the findings of this study. First, although the field survey covered nine important commercial, transport, and peripheral junction locations in Kalaburagi, these sites do not represent the full spatial diversity of the city. Residential neighbourhoods, minor streets, and other areas with different socio-economic and mobility characteristics were not examined systematically. The findings should therefore be interpreted as specific to the selected survey locations rather than as representative of all transport conditions across Kalaburagi.

Second, the TVC surveys primarily represent morning peak-period conditions and therefore provide a temporal snapshot of mobility demand. The study does not capture systematic variations across off-peak periods, evening peaks, weekdays and weekends, different seasons, or longer-term changes in travel behaviour. Consequently, the observed traffic volumes, road-user composition, PCU flows, and V/C ratios should not be generalized to all time periods.

Third, although stakeholder interviews and FGDs incorporated perspectives from several user groups, including women, older adults, young adults, transport operators, residents, engineers, and transport officials, the qualitative sample remains limited. The perspectives of children, persons with disabilities, and a broader range of socio-economic and occupational groups were not examined in sufficient depth. Future studies should therefore adopt more comprehensive sampling strategies to strengthen the assessment of mobility equity and accessibility.

Fourth, the study primarily evaluates existing mobility conditions and identifies potential planning interventions; it does not quantitatively evaluate the outcomes of the recommended measures. Proposed interventions such as public transport improvements, NMT corridors, ITS applications, IPT reorganization, electric mobility, and junction redesign would require detailed feasibility assessment, cost analysis, demand modelling, and post-implementation evaluation before their effectiveness could be established [83-120].

Future research should extend the temporal and spatial coverage of traffic and pedestrian surveys and incorporate repeated observations across different periods. GPS-based mobility data, GIS-based spatial analysis, and other sensor-supported data sources could complement field surveys by providing more detailed information on travel patterns, route choice, congestion, and first- and last-mile connectivity. Where appropriate, longitudinal analysis could also be used to assess how mobility patterns change in response to infrastructure development, public transport improvements, or land-use transformation.

Further research should also evaluate the effectiveness of ongoing and future urban mobility interventions through before-and-after studies and clearly defined performance indicators. Comparative studies involving other Tier-II Indian cities could help determine which findings are specific to Kalaburagi and which reflect broader mobility challenges across mid-sized urban areas. Such comparative and longitudinal evidence would strengthen the development of scalable, context-sensitive, and evidence-based urban transport strategies.

This study examined urban transport infrastructure and mobility conditions in Kalaburagi through an integrated assessment combining TVCs, road-user composition and directional analyses, PCU- and V/C-based traffic indicators, pedestrian assessment, spatial observations, stakeholder interviews, FGDs, and a review of relevant planning and policy documents.

The findings reveal substantial spatial variation in mobility demand across the nine surveyed locations. Rama Mandir Circle recorded the highest total movement volume, followed by the Kalaburagi Railway Station Area and Shah Bazaar and Market Areas. Pedestrians accounted for approximately 34.2--47.9\% of observed road-user movements across the surveyed locations, while two-wheelers represented the dominant motorized vehicle category at several locations. The results also demonstrate considerable variation in roadway utilization, directional traffic distribution, freight interaction, and pedestrian--vehicular interaction among different locations.

The analysis further indicates that Kalaburagi's mobility challenges extend beyond roadway capacity. Inadequate pedestrian infrastructure, limited public transport integration, weak first- and last-mile connectivity, heterogeneous traffic conditions, insufficient organization of IPT, and fragmented institutional responsibilities collectively influence accessibility, safety, and transport-system performance. Stakeholder interviews and FGDs reinforce these findings by identifying recurring concerns related to pedestrian safety, public transport accessibility, traffic management, personal security, and infrastructure quality.

Addressing these challenges requires a coordinated and phased approach combining stronger transport governance, improved public transport and IPT integration, pedestrian and cycling infrastructure, junction-specific traffic management, better mobility-data systems, and more comprehensive land-use and transport planning. Short-term institutional and management reforms can provide the foundation for medium-term public transport and ITS improvements, followed by longer-term investments in integrated mobility networks, cleaner transport technologies, and sustainable urban development.

Overall, the Kalaburagi case demonstrates that sustainable mobility planning in Tier-II cities requires approaches that are sensitive to local road-user composition, infrastructure constraints, institutional capacity, and user needs. The analytical framework and planning implications developed in this study may therefore provide useful guidance for other rapidly growing mid-sized Indian cities facing comparable mobility and infrastructure challenges.