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[1] Shannon, T., Giles-Corti, B., Pikora, T., Bulsara, M., Shilton, T. & Bull, F., Active commuting in a university setting: Assessing commuting habits and potential for modal change. Transport Policy, 13, pp. 240–253, 2006. [Crossref]
[2] Tolley, R., Green campuses: Cutting the environmental cost of commuting. Journal of Transport Geography, 4, pp. 213–217, 1996. [Crossref]
[3] Khattak, A., Wang, X., Son, S. & Agnello, P., Travel by university students in Virginia: Is this travel different from travel by the general population? Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, 2255, pp. 137–145, 2011. [Crossref]
[4] Balsas, C.J.L., Sustainable transportation planning on college campuses. Transport Policy, 10, pp. 3–49, 2003. [Crossref]
[5] Humphreys, D.K., Goodman, A. & Ogilvie, D., Associations between active commuting and physical and mental wellbeing. Preventive Medicine, 57, 135–139, 2013. ypmed.2013.04.008. [Crossref]
[6] Martin, A., Goryakin, Y. & Suhrcke, M., Does active commuting improve psychological wellbeing? Longitudinal evidence from eighteen waves of the British Household Panel Survey. Preventive Medicine, 69, 296–303, 2014. [Crossref]
[7] Arnott, B., Rehackova, L., Errington, L., Sniehotta, F.F., Roberts, J. & Araujo-Soares, V., Efficacy of behavioural interventions for transport behaviour change: Systematic review, meta-analysis and intervention coding. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 11, p. 133, 2014. [Crossref]
[8] Tertoolen, G., Van Kreveld, D. & Verstraten, B., Psychological resistance against attempts to reduce private car use. Transportation Research Part A, 32, pp. 171–181, 1998. [Crossref]
[9] Rye, T. & Ison, S., Overcoming barriers to the implementation of car parking charges at UK workplaces. Transport Policy, 12, pp. 57–64, 2005. 2004.11.002. [Crossref]
[10] Shoup, D.C., An opportunity to reduce minimum parking requirements. Journal of the American Planning Association, 61, pp. 14–28, 1995. [Crossref]
[11] Panter, J., Griffin, S., Dalton, A.M. & Ogilvie, D., Patterns and predictors of changes in active commuting over 12 months. Preventive Medicine, 57, pp. 776–784, 2013. [Crossref]
[12] Wen, L.M., Kite, J. & Rissel, C., Is there a role for workplaces in reducing employees’ driving to work? Findings from a cross-sectional survey from inner-west Sydney, Australia. BMC Public Health, 10, p. 50, 2010. [Crossref]
[13] Wilson, R.W., Estimating the travel and parking demand effects of employer-paid parking. Regional Science and Urban Economics, 22, pp. 13–145, 1992. [Crossref]
[14] Marsden, G., The evidence base for parking policies – A review. Transport Policy, 13, pp. 447–457, 2006. [Crossref]
[15] Washbrook, K., Haider, W. & Jaccard, M. Estimating commuter mode choice: A discrete choice analysis of the impact of road pricing and parking charges. Transportation, 33, pp. 621–639, 2006. [Crossref]
[16] Feeney, B.P., A review of the impact of parking policy measures on travel demand. Transportation Planning and Technology, 13, pp. 229–244, 1989. [Crossref]
[17] Watters, P., O’Mahony, M. & Caulfield, B., Response to cash outs for work place parking and work place parking charges. Transport Policy, 13, pp. 503–510, 2006. [Crossref]
[18] Habibian, M. & Kermanshah, M., Coping with congestion: Understanding the role of simultaneous transportation demand management policies on commuters. Transport Policy, 30, pp. 229–237, 2013. [Crossref]
[19] Simic´evic´, J., Vukanovic´, S. & Milosavljevic´, N. The effect of parking charges and time limit to car usage and parking behaviour. Transport Policy, 30, pp. 125–131, 2013. [Crossref]
[20] Albert, G. & Mahalel, D., Congestion tolls and parking fees: A comparison of the potential effect on travel behaviour. Transport Policy, 13, pp. 49–502, 2006. tranpol.2006.05.007. [Crossref]
[21] Barata, E., Cruz, L. & Ferreira, J.-P., Parking at the UC campus: Problems and solutions. Cities, 28, pp. 406–413, 2011. [Crossref]
[22] Danaf, M., Abou-Zeid, M. & Kaysi, I., Modeling travel choices of students at a private, urban university: Insights and policy implications. Case Studies on Transport Policy, 2, pp. 142–152, 2014. [Crossref]
[23] Delmelle, E.M. & Delmelle, E.C., Exploring spatio-temporal commuting patterns in a university environment. Transport Policy, 21, pp. 1–9, 2012. 2011.12.007. [Crossref]
[24] Rotaris, L. & Danielis, R., The impact of transportation demand management policies on commuting to college facilities: A case study at the University of Trieste, Italy. Transportation Research Part A, 67, pp. 127–140, 2014. [Crossref]
[25] Tezcan, H.O., Using parking ricing as a travel demand management tool at a university campus: an example for Istanbul Technical University. Transportation Letters: The International Journal of Transportation Research, 4, pp. 181–192, 2012. tranpol.2006.05.008. [Crossref]
[26] Simons, D., Clarys, P., De Bourdeaudhuij, I., de Geus, B., Vandelanotte, C. & Deforche, B., Why do young adults choose different transport modes? A focus group study. Transport Policy, 36, pp. 151–159, 2014. [Crossref]
[27] Corral-Verdugo, V., Dual ‘realities’ of conservation behavior: Self-reports vs observations of re-use and recycling behavior. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 17, pp. 13–145, 1997. [Crossref]
[28] Fujii, E.T., Hennessy, M. & Mak, J., An evaluation of the validity and reliability of survey response data on household electricity conservation. Evaluation Review, 9, pp. 93–104, 1985. http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0193841X8500900106.
[29] Jenner, E.A., Fletcher, B.C., Watson, P., Jones, F.A., Miller, L. & Scott, G.M., Discrepancy between self-reported and observed hand hygiene behaviour in healthcare professionals. Journal of Hospital Infection, 63, pp. 418–422, 2006. jhin.2006.03.012. [Crossref]
[30] Michalos, A.C., Creech, H., Swayze, N., Kahlke, P.M., Buckler, C. & Rempel, K., Measuring knowledge, attitudes and behaviours concerning sustainable development among Tenth Grade students in Manitoba. Social Indicators Research, 106, pp. 213–238, 2012. [Crossref]
[31] Sargisson, R.J. & McLean, I.G., Linking knowledge and action on sustainable living. Sustainability: The Journal of Record, 8, pp. 127–135, 2015. [Crossref]
[32] Miller, G.K. & Everett, C.T., Raising commuter parking prices – An empirical study. Transportation, 11, pp. 105–129, 1982. [Crossref]
[33] Pickrell, D. & Shoup, D., Employer-subsidized parking and work trip mode choice. Transportation Research Record, 786, pp. 30–39, 1981. https://trid.trb.org/view.aspx?id=168329.
[34] Surber, M., Shoup, D. & Wachs, M., Effects of ending employer-paid parking for solo drivers. Transportation Research Record, 957, pp. 67–71, 1984. https://trid.trb.org/ view.aspx?id=210601.
[35] Tørnblad, S.H., Kallbekken, S., Korneliussen, K. & Mideksa, T.K., Using mobility management to reduce private car use: Results from a natural field experiment in Norway. Transport Policy, 32, pp. 9–15, 2014. [Crossref]
[36] Festinger, L., A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance. Stanford University Press: Stanford, CA, 1957.
[37] Siegman, P., Solving Stanford’s Parking Shortage: New Solutions for an Old Problem, available at http://usa.streetsblog.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/5/2015/03/SolvingStanfords-Parking-Shortage-New-Solutions-for-an-Old-Problem-May-1994-complete. pdf, 1994 (accessed 2 May 2017).
[38] Brown, J., Hess, D.B. & Shoup, D., Fare-free public transit at universities: An evaluation. Journal of Planning Education and Research, 23, pp. 69–82, 2003. [Crossref]
[39] Whalen, K.E., Páez, A. & Carrasco, J.A., Mode choice of university students commuting to school and the role of active travel. Journal of Transport Geography, 31, pp. 132–142, 2013. [Crossref]
[40] Zhou, J., Sustainable commute in a car-dominant city: Factors affecting alternative mode choices among university students. Transportation Research Part A, 46, pp. 1013–1029, 2012. [Crossref]
[41] Abrahamse, W., Steg, L., Gifford, R. & Vlek, C., Factors influencing car use for commuting and the intention to reduce it: A question of self-interest or morality? Transportation Research Part F, 12, pp. 317–324, 2009. [Crossref]
[42] Nielson, J.R., Hovmøller, H., Blyth, P.-L. & Sovacool, B.K., Of “white crows” and “cash savers”: A qualitative study of travel behaviour and perceptions of ridesharing in Denmark. Transportation Research Part A, 78, pp. 112–113, 2015. http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/j.tra.2015.04.033.
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Open Access
Research article

Do Parking Fees Affect Commuting Choices of Staff and Students on a University Campus?

Rebecca J. Sargisson
School of Psychology, University of Waikato, New Zealand
International Journal of Transport Development and Integration
|
Volume 2, Issue 2, 2018
|
Pages 189-201
Received: N/A,
Revised: N/A,
Accepted: N/A,
Available online: 01-31-2018
View Full Article|Download PDF

Abstract:

Many initiatives have been implemented in an attempt to reduce traffic congestion and to encourage more sustainable commuting choices, however, rarely has before–after research been undertaken to measure the effect of introduction of such initiatives on commuter attitudes or behaviour. The University of Waikato, New Zealand, introduced parking charges for approximately 14,000 staff and students on their main campus in 2016, but not on a satellite campus in another city. A multimethod approach including questionnaires, naturalistic observation and photo-voice methodologies was used to assess the impact of parking fees on commuting attitudes and behaviour of staff and students. The heavy reliance on car travel was undiminished after the introduction of parking fees. Commuters still arrived by car, but more parked off-campus or became willing to pay parking fees after they were introduced. There was no increase in bus travel or cycling after the introduction of parking fees. Strategies to decrease car commuting to university campuses include higher parking charges, removing any ability to pay in advance for parking, reducing the availability of free parking nearby, subsidizing bus travel for staff and students, improving cycle and pedestrian access and related facilities, promoting the health benefits of active transport, policies that encourage students to spend more time on campus, ensuring that bus schedules align with lecture times and provision of student housing on or near campus.

Keywords: attitudes, behaviour, commuting, observation, parking fees, questionnaire, staff, students, sustainability, university
References
[1] Shannon, T., Giles-Corti, B., Pikora, T., Bulsara, M., Shilton, T. & Bull, F., Active commuting in a university setting: Assessing commuting habits and potential for modal change. Transport Policy, 13, pp. 240–253, 2006. [Crossref]
[2] Tolley, R., Green campuses: Cutting the environmental cost of commuting. Journal of Transport Geography, 4, pp. 213–217, 1996. [Crossref]
[3] Khattak, A., Wang, X., Son, S. & Agnello, P., Travel by university students in Virginia: Is this travel different from travel by the general population? Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, 2255, pp. 137–145, 2011. [Crossref]
[4] Balsas, C.J.L., Sustainable transportation planning on college campuses. Transport Policy, 10, pp. 3–49, 2003. [Crossref]
[5] Humphreys, D.K., Goodman, A. & Ogilvie, D., Associations between active commuting and physical and mental wellbeing. Preventive Medicine, 57, 135–139, 2013. ypmed.2013.04.008. [Crossref]
[6] Martin, A., Goryakin, Y. & Suhrcke, M., Does active commuting improve psychological wellbeing? Longitudinal evidence from eighteen waves of the British Household Panel Survey. Preventive Medicine, 69, 296–303, 2014. [Crossref]
[7] Arnott, B., Rehackova, L., Errington, L., Sniehotta, F.F., Roberts, J. & Araujo-Soares, V., Efficacy of behavioural interventions for transport behaviour change: Systematic review, meta-analysis and intervention coding. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 11, p. 133, 2014. [Crossref]
[8] Tertoolen, G., Van Kreveld, D. & Verstraten, B., Psychological resistance against attempts to reduce private car use. Transportation Research Part A, 32, pp. 171–181, 1998. [Crossref]
[9] Rye, T. & Ison, S., Overcoming barriers to the implementation of car parking charges at UK workplaces. Transport Policy, 12, pp. 57–64, 2005. 2004.11.002. [Crossref]
[10] Shoup, D.C., An opportunity to reduce minimum parking requirements. Journal of the American Planning Association, 61, pp. 14–28, 1995. [Crossref]
[11] Panter, J., Griffin, S., Dalton, A.M. & Ogilvie, D., Patterns and predictors of changes in active commuting over 12 months. Preventive Medicine, 57, pp. 776–784, 2013. [Crossref]
[12] Wen, L.M., Kite, J. & Rissel, C., Is there a role for workplaces in reducing employees’ driving to work? Findings from a cross-sectional survey from inner-west Sydney, Australia. BMC Public Health, 10, p. 50, 2010. [Crossref]
[13] Wilson, R.W., Estimating the travel and parking demand effects of employer-paid parking. Regional Science and Urban Economics, 22, pp. 13–145, 1992. [Crossref]
[14] Marsden, G., The evidence base for parking policies – A review. Transport Policy, 13, pp. 447–457, 2006. [Crossref]
[15] Washbrook, K., Haider, W. & Jaccard, M. Estimating commuter mode choice: A discrete choice analysis of the impact of road pricing and parking charges. Transportation, 33, pp. 621–639, 2006. [Crossref]
[16] Feeney, B.P., A review of the impact of parking policy measures on travel demand. Transportation Planning and Technology, 13, pp. 229–244, 1989. [Crossref]
[17] Watters, P., O’Mahony, M. & Caulfield, B., Response to cash outs for work place parking and work place parking charges. Transport Policy, 13, pp. 503–510, 2006. [Crossref]
[18] Habibian, M. & Kermanshah, M., Coping with congestion: Understanding the role of simultaneous transportation demand management policies on commuters. Transport Policy, 30, pp. 229–237, 2013. [Crossref]
[19] Simic´evic´, J., Vukanovic´, S. & Milosavljevic´, N. The effect of parking charges and time limit to car usage and parking behaviour. Transport Policy, 30, pp. 125–131, 2013. [Crossref]
[20] Albert, G. & Mahalel, D., Congestion tolls and parking fees: A comparison of the potential effect on travel behaviour. Transport Policy, 13, pp. 49–502, 2006. tranpol.2006.05.007. [Crossref]
[21] Barata, E., Cruz, L. & Ferreira, J.-P., Parking at the UC campus: Problems and solutions. Cities, 28, pp. 406–413, 2011. [Crossref]
[22] Danaf, M., Abou-Zeid, M. & Kaysi, I., Modeling travel choices of students at a private, urban university: Insights and policy implications. Case Studies on Transport Policy, 2, pp. 142–152, 2014. [Crossref]
[23] Delmelle, E.M. & Delmelle, E.C., Exploring spatio-temporal commuting patterns in a university environment. Transport Policy, 21, pp. 1–9, 2012. 2011.12.007. [Crossref]
[24] Rotaris, L. & Danielis, R., The impact of transportation demand management policies on commuting to college facilities: A case study at the University of Trieste, Italy. Transportation Research Part A, 67, pp. 127–140, 2014. [Crossref]
[25] Tezcan, H.O., Using parking ricing as a travel demand management tool at a university campus: an example for Istanbul Technical University. Transportation Letters: The International Journal of Transportation Research, 4, pp. 181–192, 2012. tranpol.2006.05.008. [Crossref]
[26] Simons, D., Clarys, P., De Bourdeaudhuij, I., de Geus, B., Vandelanotte, C. & Deforche, B., Why do young adults choose different transport modes? A focus group study. Transport Policy, 36, pp. 151–159, 2014. [Crossref]
[27] Corral-Verdugo, V., Dual ‘realities’ of conservation behavior: Self-reports vs observations of re-use and recycling behavior. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 17, pp. 13–145, 1997. [Crossref]
[28] Fujii, E.T., Hennessy, M. & Mak, J., An evaluation of the validity and reliability of survey response data on household electricity conservation. Evaluation Review, 9, pp. 93–104, 1985. http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0193841X8500900106.
[29] Jenner, E.A., Fletcher, B.C., Watson, P., Jones, F.A., Miller, L. & Scott, G.M., Discrepancy between self-reported and observed hand hygiene behaviour in healthcare professionals. Journal of Hospital Infection, 63, pp. 418–422, 2006. jhin.2006.03.012. [Crossref]
[30] Michalos, A.C., Creech, H., Swayze, N., Kahlke, P.M., Buckler, C. & Rempel, K., Measuring knowledge, attitudes and behaviours concerning sustainable development among Tenth Grade students in Manitoba. Social Indicators Research, 106, pp. 213–238, 2012. [Crossref]
[31] Sargisson, R.J. & McLean, I.G., Linking knowledge and action on sustainable living. Sustainability: The Journal of Record, 8, pp. 127–135, 2015. [Crossref]
[32] Miller, G.K. & Everett, C.T., Raising commuter parking prices – An empirical study. Transportation, 11, pp. 105–129, 1982. [Crossref]
[33] Pickrell, D. & Shoup, D., Employer-subsidized parking and work trip mode choice. Transportation Research Record, 786, pp. 30–39, 1981. https://trid.trb.org/view.aspx?id=168329.
[34] Surber, M., Shoup, D. & Wachs, M., Effects of ending employer-paid parking for solo drivers. Transportation Research Record, 957, pp. 67–71, 1984. https://trid.trb.org/ view.aspx?id=210601.
[35] Tørnblad, S.H., Kallbekken, S., Korneliussen, K. & Mideksa, T.K., Using mobility management to reduce private car use: Results from a natural field experiment in Norway. Transport Policy, 32, pp. 9–15, 2014. [Crossref]
[36] Festinger, L., A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance. Stanford University Press: Stanford, CA, 1957.
[37] Siegman, P., Solving Stanford’s Parking Shortage: New Solutions for an Old Problem, available at http://usa.streetsblog.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/5/2015/03/SolvingStanfords-Parking-Shortage-New-Solutions-for-an-Old-Problem-May-1994-complete. pdf, 1994 (accessed 2 May 2017).
[38] Brown, J., Hess, D.B. & Shoup, D., Fare-free public transit at universities: An evaluation. Journal of Planning Education and Research, 23, pp. 69–82, 2003. [Crossref]
[39] Whalen, K.E., Páez, A. & Carrasco, J.A., Mode choice of university students commuting to school and the role of active travel. Journal of Transport Geography, 31, pp. 132–142, 2013. [Crossref]
[40] Zhou, J., Sustainable commute in a car-dominant city: Factors affecting alternative mode choices among university students. Transportation Research Part A, 46, pp. 1013–1029, 2012. [Crossref]
[41] Abrahamse, W., Steg, L., Gifford, R. & Vlek, C., Factors influencing car use for commuting and the intention to reduce it: A question of self-interest or morality? Transportation Research Part F, 12, pp. 317–324, 2009. [Crossref]
[42] Nielson, J.R., Hovmøller, H., Blyth, P.-L. & Sovacool, B.K., Of “white crows” and “cash savers”: A qualitative study of travel behaviour and perceptions of ridesharing in Denmark. Transportation Research Part A, 78, pp. 112–113, 2015. http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/j.tra.2015.04.033.
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GB-T-7714-2015
Sargisson, R. J. (2018). Do Parking Fees Affect Commuting Choices of Staff and Students on a University Campus?. Int. J. Transp. Dev. Integr., 2(2), 189-201. https://doi.org/10.2495/TDI-V2-N2-189-201
R. J. Sargisson, "Do Parking Fees Affect Commuting Choices of Staff and Students on a University Campus?," Int. J. Transp. Dev. Integr., vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 189-201, 2018. https://doi.org/10.2495/TDI-V2-N2-189-201
@research-article{Sargisson2018DoPF,
title={Do Parking Fees Affect Commuting Choices of Staff and Students on a University Campus?},
author={Rebecca J. Sargisson},
journal={International Journal of Transport Development and Integration},
year={2018},
page={189-201},
doi={https://doi.org/10.2495/TDI-V2-N2-189-201}
}
Rebecca J. Sargisson, et al. "Do Parking Fees Affect Commuting Choices of Staff and Students on a University Campus?." International Journal of Transport Development and Integration, v 2, pp 189-201. doi: https://doi.org/10.2495/TDI-V2-N2-189-201
Rebecca J. Sargisson. "Do Parking Fees Affect Commuting Choices of Staff and Students on a University Campus?." International Journal of Transport Development and Integration, 2, (2018): 189-201. doi: https://doi.org/10.2495/TDI-V2-N2-189-201
SARGISSON R J. Do Parking Fees Affect Commuting Choices of Staff and Students on a University Campus?[J]. International Journal of Transport Development and Integration， 2018， 2(2)： 189-201. https://doi.org/10.2495/TDI-V2-N2-189-201