Assessment of Urbanization's Environmental Impact in Makurdi Metropolis, Benue State, Nigeria

Urbanization, a phenomenon marked by population growth and rural migration to cities, has become a primary driver of environmental change worldwide [1]. This trend is particularly evident in developing countries like Nigeria, where urban expansion exerts pressure on ecosystems and reshapes social, economic, and environmental dynamics. Urban growth not only reorganizes places and economies but also intensifies pressure on natural resources, leading to unprecedented environmental strain [2]. As cities expand, they draw on surrounding forests, agricultural lands, and water bodies, depleting resources at an unsustainable rate and creating environmental consequences that often extend beyond urban boundaries [3]. In Nigeria, the urbanization rate, fueled by migration and natural population growth, has led to high demand for urban land and resources. This trend has transformed cities into "centers of progress," where residents seek improved living conditions and economic opportunities [4, 5]. Yet, while cities are seen as beacons of modernization, their rapid expansion contributes to habitat destruction, pollution, and resource depletion [6].

Makurdi Metropolis, located in Benue State, was selected as the study area due to its unique characteristics that make it a representative case for studying urbanization and environmental degradation in Nigeria (Figure 1). The city is experiencing rapid population growth driven by both high birth rates and rural-to-urban migration, making it an ideal location to examine the environmental impacts of urbanization. Additionally, Makurdi faces significant environmental challenges such as deforestation, pollution, and habitat loss, which are common in many rapidly urbanizing cities in developing countries. Geographically, Makurdi is situated in the Middle Belt region of Nigeria, serving as a strategic link between the northern and southern parts of the country. This makes it a microcosm of broader urbanization trends in Nigeria. Furthermore, while urbanization has been studied in other Nigerian cities, Makurdi has received less attention in the literature, making this study a valuable contribution to understanding the environmental impacts of urbanization in under-researched regions.

The demand for forest products in the area, along with extensive land clearing for agricultural and urban development, has led to forest degradation and biodiversity loss, threatening the region's socio-economic stability [7]. Environmental issues such as deforestation, pollution, and erosion compound urbanization's impact on the natural ecosystem. Makurdi's natural resources, particularly forest reserves established during colonial times, have been depleted due to growing urban populations and economic pressures. These changes challenge sustainable development goals, highlighting the need for balanced urban planning, renewable energy adoption, and sustainable waste management practices [8]. This study seeks to explore these dynamics within Makurdi, assessing the environmental impact of urban growth and identifying strategies for mitigating the adverse effects on Benue State's natural ecosystem. By integrating survey data with existing literature, this research provides a comprehensive view of urbanization's toll on environmental health in Makurdi, highlighting its implications for policy and sustainable development.

Makurdi local government area is situated in northeastern Benue State, Nigeria, between latitudes 7°34'N and 7°40'N and longitudes 8°28'E and 8°34'E (refer to Figure 1). Located within the Benue trough, a geophysical zone averaging 92 meters above sea level, Makurdi is bordered by Guma to the northeast, Doma to the northwest, Gwer West to the west, and Gwer East to the south. As part of Nigeria's Middle Belt region, it lies 16 kilometers from the city center and serves as both the headquarters of Makurdi Local Government Area (L.G.A) and the Capital of Benue State, acting as a strategic link between Nigeria’s northern and southern regions. Benue state is recognized as one of the largest vegetation zones in the country, the vegetation of is characterized by tall grasses up to 2 m tall [8, 9]. The town is marked by a network of drainage channels, the largest being the Benue River, which divides Makurdi into northern and southern sections. The river’s tributaries include Urudu, Demepe, Kereke, and Mu, with smaller streams like Idye and Kpege also contributing to local water flow. In 2017, Makurdi's population was estimated at 517,342, with a density of 323 people per square kilometer, representing roughly 8.14% of Benue State’s total population.

The research employed a quantitative methodology, using structured surveys to gather data from 150 respondents in Makurdi. To ensure the objectivity of the results, the data were analyzed separately by gender, and no significant differences in responses were found. Stratified sampling ensured proportional representation across demographic variables such as gender, age, and occupation. This approach was selected because it allows for the collection of standardized data from a large sample, enabling statistical analysis of trends and patterns related to urbanization and environmental degradation. Structured surveys are particularly effective for capturing demographic information, public opinions, and perceptions of environmental issues, which are central to this study.

Findings were tabulated to illustrate trends and population sentiments regarding urbanization's environmental impact. A descriptive design was selected to understand the extent of urbanization's impact within the area. The design facilitated both the documentation of population characteristics and exploration of relationships between urban growth factors and environmental consequences. The study investigated causes of urbanization, environmental problems linked to urbanization, and public opinion on potential solutions, as represented in frequency and percentage tables. These tables were instrumental in interpreting urbanization's role in the environmental context of Makurdi.

Ethical considerations were carefully addressed during the data collection process. All respondents were provided with detailed information about the study's purpose and procedures, and informed consent was obtained before participation. Respondents were assured that their participation was voluntary and that their responses would remain confidential. No personally identifiable information was collected, and data were anonymized to protect respondents' privacy. These protocols were implemented to ensure that the study adhered to ethical standards for research involving human subjects.

The demographic profile in Table 1 of the respondents in this study highlights a significant male predominance (65.3%), with females constituting 34.7% of the sample (Figure 2). This gender disparity may reflect employment trends in urban areas like Makurdi, where men often dominate sectors reliant on natural resources, such as construction, logging, and agriculture. These sectors are typically more labor-intensive and may offer more immediate economic benefits, which could foster a supportive attitude toward urban growth despite its environmental implications [3].

The age distribution in Table 2 reveals that a substantial portion of respondents (32.0%) were young adults aged 25-31, followed closely by those aged 18-24 (27.3%). This youth demographic is likely attracted to Makurdi due to job opportunities, driving demand for housing, resources, and infrastructure. As the primary contributors to urban growth, this group’s increasing needs for jobs and social services further strains the natural ecosystem [10]. Furthermore, the educational background of the respondents in Table 3 is noteworthy, with 60% possessing tertiary education. A well-educated populace is generally more aware of the environmental impacts of urbanization, potentially leading to greater advocacy for sustainable practices. This heightened awareness can enhance community engagement and support for green initiatives [11].

In terms of occupation in Table 4, trading was identified as the primary employment sector (32.7%), followed by farming (24%) and civil service (22.7%). This occupational diversity illustrates how urbanization in Makurdi holds a wide range of economic activities, but it also suggests potential conflicts between urban enlargement and agricultural land use. The encroachment of commercial areas on farmland could lead to deforestation and biodiversity loss [6]. However, half of the respondents (50%) in Table 5 are single, suggesting that the sample may include many young or unmarried individuals. Married respondents make up 40.6%, the second-largest group while widowed and divorced respondents are the smallest groups (4.7% each).

The data reveal that 53.3% of respondents strongly agree that high birth rates in Table 6 are a significant driver of urbanization in Makurdi, contributing to an ever-expanding urban population. This rapid growth is putting a lot of strain on the city's already limited infrastructure, causing overcrowding, overuse of resources, and harm to the environment [1]. The high percentage of respondents who agree or strongly agree (92%) underscores the importance of addressing population growth as a key factor in urban environmental degradation (Figure 3). More than half of the people surveyed (50.7%) pointed out that rural-urban migration is a major driver of this urbanization as shown in Table 7. Many people move to the city in search of better job opportunities and improved living conditions. However, this influx of people often leads to urban sprawl, especially in the outskirts of the city where infrastructure can’t keep up with the growing demands. This unregulated expansion makes environmental problems even worse [2].

Economic opportunities were also highlighted, with 34% of respondents indicating that the city's economic pull continues to drive migration, as indicated in Table 8. The pursuit of higher wages in urban areas results in population density, placing increased pressure on local resources, leading to pollution, habitat loss, and deforestation [12]. Furthermore, 62% of respondents identified conflicts and disasters as significant migration drivers, emphasizing Makurdi's role as a refuge for displaced individuals as seen in Table 9. This demographic shift intensifies the consumption of essential resources, including water, energy, and housing, often resulting in overcrowding and depletion of resources [4].

The attraction of social services to 33.3% of respondents underscores the role of urban amenities in drawing rural residents which is shown in Table 10; a trend that strains Makurdi's infrastructure and accelerates unsustainable urban growth, further impacting environmental resources [3].

Urbanization in Makurdi has led to significant challenges, with half of the respondents acknowledging that high population levels pose considerable urban issues in Table 11. Rapid population growth intensifies the demand for essential services, resulting in resource shortages and environmental pollution. Such unregulated growth exacerbates issues like air pollution and land degradation [13]. Alarmingly, 84.6% of respondents reported pollution in Table 12 as a primary concern, citing increased waste generation, industrial emissions, and inadequate waste disposal as key factors degrading water and air quality, directly impacting public health and the local ecosystem. Pollutant levels often exceed safe limits, underscoring the urgent need for effective waste management [14, 15].

Deforestation is another significant issue, with 43.3% of respondents agreeing and 42% strongly agreeing that urbanization-related logging and land clearing are detrimental to forested areas in Table 13. This destruction impacts biodiversity, soil stability, and hydrological cycles, while the loss of forests threatens species survival and diminishes critical carbon sinks, contributing to climate change [6]. Furthermore, in Table 14, the majority of the respondents (53.3%) recognized the influence of climate change, exacerbated by urbanization through increased emissions, altered hydrological cycles, and reduced green spaces. This transformation leads to climate-related stresses like rising temperatures and increased rainfall variability, compounding environmental challenges for urban areas [16].

Soil erosion in Table 15 was flagged by 51.3% of respondents, highlighting the detrimental effects of unplanned construction and deforestation on soil integrity. This erosion exacerbates land degradation and threatens agricultural productivity, posing long-term food security challenges for Makurdi [17]. Habitat loss due to urban expansion was acknowledged by 57.3% of respondents in Table 16, indicating that as urbanization encroaches on forests and wetlands, it displaces local species, leading to biodiversity loss and threatening ecological balance [7]. Moreover, 49.3% of respondents strongly agreed on the necessity for effective law enforcement to regulate urban activities as indicated in Table 17, as weak enforcement facilitates illegal deforestation, pollution, and unregulated construction practices that significantly degrade environmental quality. Strengthening legal frameworks and enforcement is vital to address these unsustainable practices [8].

The impacts of urbanization are evident in Table 18, with resource over-exploitation remaining a key concern for respondents. Rapid population growth, industrial expansion, and urban infrastructure development have led to the depletion of natural resources, causing ecological deficits when consumption exceeds regenerative capacity [18]. Additionally, in Table 19, 50.7% of respondents identified the lack of comprehensive planning in urban infrastructure as problematic. According to Bradbury et al. [2], uncoordinated growth results in fragmented landscapes, inadequate waste and water management, and unsanitary conditions that pollute the environment.

Poor waste disposal, acknowledged by over 47.3% of respondents, poses a significant urban challenge as described in Table 20. Omokaro et al. [19] noted that, improper waste management pose a significant treat to natural resources. Without effective waste management, solid and liquid wastes contaminate water bodies and green spaces, heightening health risks and harming biodiversity. Improved waste management could mitigate pollution and its adverse environmental effects [20]. Concerns regarding species extinction and habitat degradation were supported by 51.3% and 54.7% of respondents, respectively, emphasizing urbanization’s detrimental impact on biodiversity which is displayed in Tables 21-24. Urban expansion disrupts habitats, reducing species populations and degrading essential ecosystem services that local communities rely upon [3]. Furthermore, the introduction of invasive species was a significant concern, with 47.3% of respondents agreeing and 38.7% strongly agreeing that urbanization facilitates the spread of non-native species, which outcompete local flora and fauna, further disrupting ecosystems and altering ecological dynamics. This shift diminishes biodiversity and affects the natural resilience of ecosystems [21].

The survey results indicate strong support for reforestation efforts in Table 25, with 53.3% of respondents endorsing tree planting as a means to restore ecological balance. Tree planting initiatives can significantly contribute to urban areas by sequestering carbon dioxide, providing shade, and reducing pollution. Such environmental restoration efforts are vital for mitigating deforestation impacts, preserving local biodiversity, and protecting Makurdi’s peri-urban areas from further ecological degradation [8]. Additionally, there is notable support (52.7% strongly agreed) for effective waste disposal in Tables 26 and 27 with structured urban planning. Enhanced waste management strategies could alleviate pollution and its negative health implications, while systematic urban planning could facilitate efficient resource use. Respondents recognize that without these measures, Makurdi risks further environmental deterioration and may struggle to meet the needs of its growing urban population [19, 10].

However, opinions on proper urban planning in Table 28 are sharply divided, with nearly half of respondents (46.0%) strongly disagreeing about current practices, suggesting significant dissatisfaction. While 44.7% agree with existing urban planning approaches, only a small fraction (2.0%) strongly agree, indicating weak enthusiastic support. Meanwhile, 7.3% disagree, reinforcing concerns about planning effectiveness. Similarly, respondents (51.3%) in Table 29 agree with green infrastructure initiatives, suggesting strong public support for sustainable urban development. Those who strongly agree make up 40.7%, indicating a high level of enthusiasm.

Moreover, 53.3% of respondents expressed support for renewable energy initiatives as indicated in Table 30, highlighting a public interest in reducing dependence on fossil fuels. The incorporation of renewable energy sources, such as solar and wind power, could significantly decrease pollution levels, reduce carbon footprints, and promote ecological urban growth. By embracing renewable energy, Makurdi could diminish its environmental impact while ensuring reliable energy sources that do not contribute to air and environmental pollution or greenhouse gas emissions [18, 22].

The field survey data in Table 31 further indicate strong community support in Makurdi Metropolis for both climate-resilient design and active community engagement in urban planning. More so, a substantial 90% of respondents are in favor of climate-resilient approaches, with 56.7% agreeing and 33.3% strongly agreeing on the need to integrate climate-adaptive strategies in construction and infrastructure. This high level of approval highlights a collective recognition of the importance of minimizing vulnerabilities to climate impacts in urban growth.

In parallel, in Table 32, support for community engagement is equally strong, with 46% agreeing and 44.7% strongly agreeing on the importance of involving the community in decision-making processes. This near-unanimous endorsement (90.7%) reflects residents’ desire for an inclusive approach, ensuring local perspectives and needs shape urban development. Only small minorities Disagree with either climate resilience (10%) or community engagement (9.3%), suggesting a widely shared commitment to sustainable, participatory urban planning in Makurdi.

To better understand the relative impact of each factor which are high birth rates, rural-to-urban migration, employment opportunities, social amenities, and conflict/environmental disasters, a weighted analysis was conducted. The weights were derived by summing the percentages of respondents who agreed and strongly agreed with each factor as a driver of urbanization, then normalizing these values to sum to 100%. This approach quantifies the relative importance of each factor in driving population growth and environmental degradation. High birth rates (53.3% strongly agree) and rural-to-urban migration (50.7% strongly agree) were identified as the most significant drivers of population growth, followed by employment opportunities (34% strongly agree) and social amenities (33.3% strongly agree). The findings of this study have important implications for urban planning and environmental management in rapidly urbanizing cities. Policymakers should prioritize family planning programs, rural development initiatives, and sustainable urban planning to mitigate the environmental impacts of urbanization. Additionally, community engagement and the adoption of renewable energy sources should be integral components of urban development strategies.

To achieve sustainable growth, authorities must address the root causes of urbanization through targeted interventions, such as policies that balance economic development with environmental protection. Key strategies include implementing family planning programs to manage population growth, promoting rural development to reduce migration pressures, and investing in renewable energy and climate-resilient infrastructure. By integrating these strategies with comprehensive urban planning, Makurdi can work toward sustainable growth that benefits both its population and the environment. This approach not only addresses the unique needs of urban centers but also protects local ecosystems, providing a replicable model for other growing cities facing similar environmental challenges.

Urbanization in Makurdi has led to several pressing environmental issues, including resource overuse, pollution, and habitat degradation. The city's rapid population growth, driven by both natural increase and rural-to-urban migration, is stretching Makurdi's ecosystem to its limits. Data from this study reveal that pollution, deforestation, and soil erosion are significant concerns for residents, largely promoted by unregulated urban expansion. The weighted analysis of influencing factors highlights the critical role of high birth rates, rural-to-urban migration, and limited employment opportunities in driving population growth and environmental degradation. Despite these challenges, the community demonstrates strong support for sustainable solutions, such as reforestation, improved waste management, climate-resilient urban design, community engagement, and renewable energy adoption. This emphasizes the importance of incorporating community perspectives into urban development strategies, offering a bottom-up approach to addressing environmental challenges. More so, the study makes several key contributions to the literature on urbanization and environmental degradation. First, it provides a detailed analysis of the drivers and impacts of urbanization in Makurdi, a region that has been understudied in existing research. Second, it emphasizes the value of community-driven solutions in shaping effective urban development strategies. Finally, it proposes concrete policy recommendations, such as family planning programs, rural development initiatives, and renewable energy adoption, which can serve as a blueprint for other rapidly urbanizing cities in Nigeria and beyond.