Open AccessIntegrated Wastewater Management for Environmental Protection and Sustainable Ecotourism in an Andean Paramo Community
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The rural Andean community of Yacubiana, Ecuador, currently lacks an adequate sanitation infrastructure, with domestic wastewater managed through individual septic tanks. These decentralized systems have exhibited significant infiltration issues, resulting in groundwater contamination, degradation of sensitive páramo ecosystems, and adverse public health outcomes. Furthermore, this environmental degradation has impeded the community’s potential for ecotourism-based development. To address these challenges, an integrated wastewater management strategy was developed, grounded in sanitary engineering principles and aligned with conservation priorities. The proposed framework encompassed four sequential phases: (i) a comprehensive analysis of existing data on water and wastewater practices within the community; (ii) a systematic evaluation of sanitation alternatives tailored to the community’s socio-environmental context and the ecological fragility of Andean paramos; (iii) the design of a selected sanitation solution in accordance with national and international technical standards; and (iv) a SWOT (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats) analysis conducted with both technical experts in water resource management and local community representatives. This participatory evaluation aimed to identify strategic pathways for enhancing environmental stewardship, promoting circular water economies, and enabling sustainable tourism. The recommended intervention consists of a simplified, decentralized sewage collection system linked to a trickling filter-based treatment plant, designed for a hydraulic load of 2.79 L/s. The SWOT analysis revealed substantial institutional and infrastructural constraints, primarily due to limited governmental support; however, it also identified considerable ecotourism potential grounded in the area’s geological, ecological, and cultural assets. When implemented within a conservation-based framework, the proposed system is expected to support compliance with Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 3 (Good Health and Well-being), 6 (Clean Water and Sanitation), and 11 (Sustainable Cities and Communities). The methodological approach developed herein offers a replicable model for integrated wastewater management in rural, environmentally sensitive regions, providing a viable foundation for community-led, sustainable socio-economic development.1. Introduction
Water is an essential natural resource for life on the planet, as it is interconnected with ecological, social and productive systems; therefore, any alteration in its availability and quality can put its survival at risk (UNESCO World Water Assessment Programme, 2020). Developing activities at the domestic, economic, agricultural and industrial levels strongly depends on water resources. Unfortunately, these activities involve physical, chemical and biological contamination processes that generate large amounts of wastewater, negatively impacting the environment (Rout et al., 2021). The contaminants present in these waters are removed or reduced by a wastewater treatment system (WTS), which can be centralized (CWTS) or decentralized (DWTS).
CWTS is designed to collect and transport wastewater from an entire city or community from the source to a wastewater treatment plant (WTP) through an extensive network of underground pipes (sanitary sewer) (Muya, 2024). WTPs seek to remove contaminants from water for safe return to the environment or reuse (Yin et al., 2019). In general, contaminant removal is carried out in four treatment stages: preliminary (separation of visible solids), primary (removal of coarse and sedimentable material), secondary (removal of organic matter), and tertiary (removal of nutrients and microorganisms) (Metcalf & Eddy, 1995).
CWTS have more excellent coverage in urban areas with high population density, while DWTS is used in low-density population centres, commonly in small cities, peri-urban areas and rural communities in developing countries (Nanninga et al., 2012; Singh et al., 2015). DWTS focus primarily on treating and removing pollutants at or near the source so that the sanitary sewer application is significantly reduced or obviated (Capodaglio et al., 2017). It is worth mentioning that the success of its implementation depends mainly on regular inspection and maintenance work (Massoud et al., 2009). Otherwise, there is a risk of wastewater seeping into the subsoil, degrading the surrounding soils and contaminating underground water bodies.
Rural communities often have precarious or, in some cases, non-existent sanitation systems, so the use of DWTS based on septic tanks or cesspools is every day (Abioye & Perera, 2019; Dudley & May, 2007). Although they have been considered acceptable solutions for wastewater disposal, there is increasing evidence that they represent a potential risk for surface and underground sources (Lasagna & De Luca, 2019; Shirazi et al., 2015; Singh et al., 2020). The problem worsens when communities settle in sensitive ecosystems important for water conservation, such as the paramos.
The paramos are high mountain ecosystems found in an elevation range between 3,000 and 5,000 m.a.s.l. and are characterized by a humid and cold climate, with low temperatures throughout the year (Sevillano-Ríos et al., 2020). They constitute essential freshwater sources since they act as natural sponges that supply multiple hydrographic basins, providing water resources to rural and urban communities (Mosquera et al., 2023). Another fundamental aspect is that they are ecosystems that host a great diversity of endemic flora and fauna typical of high-altitude ecosystems (Christmann & Oliveras, 2020). This condition makes them attractive sites for ecotourism, which represents a source of income widely applied in Andean communities, focusing on conservation and environmental protection (García et al., 2019; Ross, 2020). Andean communities in the paramos often have a close relationship with this environment through ancestral practices in agriculture, livestock, and natural resource management (Brück et al., 2023; Buytaert et al., 2006). Factors such as accessibility, lack of infrastructure, technological resource scarcity, and low temperatures represent challenges that require adaptive approaches in decision-making for ecosystem conservation, which also influences wastewater management (Zhang et al., 2025).
According to the reviewed literature, there are few studies related to wastewater management in rural communities settled in sensitive ecosystems and its impact on socio-economic development. Studies such as Ali et al. (2021) evaluated the impacts generated by wastewater on biodiversity loss in a protected area of Dena in southwest Iran. On the other hand, Bakir (2001) proposed a management model in communities in the Middle East and North Africa to preserve the area's scarce water resources. In both cases, adequate wastewater management's importance is reflected in protecting the environment and public health. In developing countries, it is crucial to protect aquatic ecosystems to guarantee ecosystem services, where community participation plays a fundamental role (Carroll et al., 2019; Fonseca et al., 2024; Vollmer et al., 2022). According to Mosquera et al. (2023), there is a need to develop studies related to water management in communities located in the paramos. In the systematic literature review carried out by these authors, scientific progress related to biotic, abiotic, and sociopolitical aspects of water resources in paramos is evident, highlighting that Ecuador is the country that leads this type of research. However, in Ecuador and the Andean region in general, no study has yet been conducted on wastewater management in rural communities located in paramos to mitigate environmental problems and ecosystem conservation.
In Ecuador, according to data from the National Institute of Statistics and the 2022 Census, 68% of the population lives in urban areas and 32% lives in rural areas. In urban areas, 16% of households are not connected to a sewerage system; in rural areas, the figure increases to 76%. In general, 24% of households that do not have access to a sewerage system dump their wastewater into a septic tank, 4.2% into a cesspool, 1.2% into a latrine, and 3.5% do not have a sanitary facility (Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Censo, 2022). Paramos located in the central highlands of Ecuador have been characterised by more significant impacts due to their accessibility and the diverse presence of communities (Ramón, 2002). According to Torres et al. (2023a), the different communities located in "Salinas de Guaranda" are the object of study because of their socioeconomic development due to agricultural and livestock activities that threaten the conservation objectives of the paramos. The effects of climate change due to droughts registered in the country added to the decrease in water capture and storage due to excessive soil compaction related mainly to livestock farming and continuous burning for agriculture (Naranjo Borja et al., 2018). Although the communities of Salinas de Guaranda, from an economic point of view, depend exclusively on existing cheese factories, it has been shown that this activity is not aligned with the conservation objectives of paramos. This indicates the need to rethink local socioeconomic activities with environmental conservation strategies that arise from the needs of communities (Torres et al., 2023b). An alternative to mitigating the impact of agricultural and livestock activities on communities located in paramos is ecotourism development as a convivial conservation activity (Amador-Jimenez & Millner, 2024; Chávez-Velásquez, 2022), which protects sensitive ecosystems while simultaneously promoting the socioeconomic development of the population.
This research analyzes the case of the Yacubiana rural commune, located in the Guaranda canton, Ecuador, approximately 23 km from the Chimborazo volcano, with an average elevation of 3,589 m.a.s.l. and an average temperature of 9-10℃ (Figure 1). Its economy depends on livestock, agricultural activities and a community cheese factory, its primary source of income being the commercialization of field products (Alava Zuñiga & Vallejo Palomeque, 2021). Currently, the community has 65% water service coverage, provided through a piped water system to supply domestic use and consumption needs, with access 24 hours a day. However, it lacks a wastewater collection and purification system, so the community's inhabitants have opted to use septic tanks, which have no internal lining, representing a risk to the protection of the moor and health.
On the other hand, Yacubiana also seeks to integrate into the local economy through tourism development, similar to the Salinas de Guaranda community, located 4 km away, where 28 community micro-enterprises operate that generate different artisanal products offered in the national market and exported to other countries, making it a benchmark for community tourism in Ecuador (AME, 2021). However, the lack of adequate infrastructure for wastewater management limits the tourism development of Yacubiana, where the future construction of a community hotel, houses and cafes is contemplated, taking advantage of the area's natural, geological and cultural attractions.
Based on the above, the following research question arises: How can socioeconomic development be achieved without causing significant impacts on the paramo by improving wastewater management? Therefore, this study seeks to propose a wastewater treatment system that meets two essential goals following sanitary engineering principles: i) mitigate the degradation of paramos caused by economic activities associated with livestock farming and human activity in general, through a wastewater transport, collection, and treatment system; and ii) propose ecotourism as a socioeconomic activity that adapts to the conservation objectives of paramos and addresses the economic needs of the community, from the perspective of different key stakeholders. The research findings will lay the foundations for the community to migrate to a community tourism model that ensures sustainable social development and environmental protection in the long term.
2. Methodology
The study methodology combines the sanitation system design and qualitative analysis of the rural community tourist potential through three phases: The methodology consists of four phases: i) existing information analysis, ii) evaluation of alternatives for the sanitation system, iii) selected alternative design under current national and international technical standards, iv) Analysis of Strengths, Opportunities, Weaknesses and Threats (SWOT) to define strategies that promote environmental care, the circular economy of water, as well as the tourist development of the area (Figure 2).
The existing information analysis and field trips allowed us to determine the social and cultural conditions of the population, the current sanitation system state, consumption habits, basic services coverage and expansion plans that the community has projected in a minimum period of five years. Additionally, the topographic survey of the study area was carried out to determine the level curves and slopes through the ArcGIS program.
The study estimated a) the projected Yacubiana population and b) the number of population equivalents to the wastewater input generated by the communal cheese factory (Boiocchi & Bertanza, 2022). This allowed for identifying the applicable sanitation system type according to local regulations, which also serves as a design parameter for the wastewater transport and disposal system.
The population projection for Yacubiana used information from previous censuses as starting data, considering the influence of the changing population according to expansion plans (INEC, 2022). Local regulations described in the Ecuadorian Code of Practice CPE-INEN:5:9:2 (Instituto Ecuatoriano de Normalización, 1992) recommend using three population projection methods to estimate the future population at the end of the design period, so the study considered the arithmetic, geometric and exponential methods (Hinde, 2014; Raymondo, 1992). The selected approach was the one that obtained the Pearson "R2" coefficient closest to one (Schober et al., 2018).
The number of people equivalent to the cheese factory's production was determined by the relationship between the cheese factory's pollutant load (CC) and the contributing load per person (CCp). Since there is no official figure for CCp in Ecuador, a reference value was taken from the available bibliography (Huertas & Marcos, 2012). On the other hand, CC was estimated as the product of the Biochemical Oxygen Demand concentration and the cheese factory's discharge flow rate, obtained by the volumetric method (Instituto Privado de Investigación sobre Cambio Climático, 2017).
It is worth mentioning that the study considered the water characterization of the cheese factory located in Salinas de Guaranda as an expected range of contamination due to the following conditions:
Yacubiana does not have the resources to carry out this monitoring, so they have no composition record of the cheese factory's wastewater.
Both cheese factories share similar raw materials, production processes, and product type characteristics.
Similar climatic conditions (both locations are approximately 3.5 km apart).
The water provision for the commune is based on the considerations of the CPE-INEN 5:9:2 and was corrected based on the current demand because the socioeconomic conditions of the area will change for this; the study considered an increase of 1 l/hab/day for each year of the design period.
Since the population uses septic tanks for wastewater disposal from the domestic sector and the cheese industry, an alternative was sought that would allow for a solution considering the community's economic, geographic and cultural limitations.
The study proposed three proposals to select the most convenient collection and treatment system, choosing the best alternative using the Likert scale, which rates the alternatives from 1 to 5, with 1 being the most unfavourable condition and 5 the most favourable condition (Table 1) (Likert, 1932). For the application of the Likert scale, a series of conditions were considered that would imply a restriction to the proposed alternative application (Table 2).
Component | Alternative 1 | Alternative 2 | Alternative 3 |
Wastewater collection | Conventional sewerage | Simplified sewerage (Non conventional) | Dry toilets |
Wastewater treatment | Trickling filter | Rotatory Biological Contactors (RBC) | Peat filter |
Wastewater Collection System | ||||||||
Social | Technical | Environmental | Economic | |||||
1) Bad odors formations 2) Presence of insects/pests 3) Pedestrian accidents risk 4) Community participation 5) Vehicular traffic interruption | 6) Standardization, regulations 7) Qualified personnel | 8) Flora and fauna destruction 9) Risk of aquifers alteration 10) Dust generation | 11) Construction 12) Equipment/ machinery 13) Implementation 14) Operation/maintenance | |||||
Wastewater Treatment System | ||||||||
Economic | Environmental | Sludge Management | Biophysical Conditions | Change in Flow/ Pollutant Load | ||||
1) Implementation 2) Operation 3) Maintenance 4) Energy consumption | 5) Bad odours 6) Noise 7) Landscape integration | 8) Quantity generated 9) Removal frequency | 10) Surface 11) Low temperature | 12) Heavy ollution 13) Change flow adaption | ||||
The average flow ($Q_m$) was calculated in Eq. (1), which is a function of the domestic ($Q_{ {dom }}$) in Eq. (2), institutional ($Q_{i n s}$), industrial ($Q_{\text {ind }}$) and commercial ($Q_{\text {com }}$) flows.
Cr: Return coefficient (between 0.7 and 0.85, depending on the complexity of the system)
D: Endowment of drinking water (L/hab/day)
Q: Population (hab)
Additionally, it is necessary to estimate the infiltration flow ($Q_{I N F}$) and the flow due to illegal connections ($Q_{I L I}$), as well as the maximum hourly flow ($Q_{M H}$), which is an average flow function. The design flow calculation ($Q_{\text {des }}$) is given by Eq. (3) and follows the considerations of the sewerage system design standard as established in (Empresa metropolitana de alcantarillado y agua potable de Quito, 2009).
The new sewerage network design must be governed by compliance with the minimum requirements for slopes, diameters and speeds to ensure the correct hydraulic operation of the system and that it works by gravity (Instituto Ecuatoriano de Normalización, 1992). For the design, it is important to verify, through hydraulic relations, that the system works with a partially full pipe and under pressure Eq. (4).
For the treatment system design, the study considered the implementation of a pretreatment system (sand remover), a primary treatment system (Imhoff tank) and a secondary treatment system (trickling filter or bacterial bed). The study considered a horizontal flow range, whose sizing depends on the cross-sectional area and deposit length, which considers the maximum hourly flow and horizontal velocity. Therefore, it is necessary to analyse the particle size because the horizontal velocity values arise from this parameter. The desander allows the separation of heavy solids in suspension so as not to affect the performance of subsequent treatments. The design conforms to the guidelines and equations established in (Hernández Muñoz et al., 2004).
The Imhoff tank design follows the criteria established in the "Guide for the Design of Septic Tanks, Imhoff Tanks and Stabilization Ponds" (Organización Panamericana de la Salud & Centro Panamericano de Ingeniería Sanitaria y Ciencias del Ambiente, 2005), which contemplates a sedimentation and digestion zone. For sludge treatment, the study considered the implementation of drying beds. This section does not include detailed design details because the guide is practical and has a logical design sequence.
The Trickling Filter (TF) design follows the steps recommended in (Metcalf & Eddy, 1995), where, depending on the depth, the ambient temperature, the recirculation rate, the BOD5 concentration at the inlet and outlet of the system, and a treatability constant, which allow determining the necessary surface of the TF, and later the diameter. The distributor's arm's rotation speed is also estimated based on the hydraulic load and the dosing flow.
At the output, the values must be less than or equal to the Maximum Permissible Limit (LMP) following the Unified Text of Secondary Legislation of Ecuador's Ministry of the Environment (TULSMA) (Ministerio del Ambiente Agua y Transición Ecológica del Ecuador, 2015).
Finally, an environmental impact matrix was developed to assess the potential effects that would be generated by the activities associated with implementing the sanitation system during the construction and maintenance stage. Table 3 shows the activities related to implementing the selected proposals. The Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) was carried out using the Integrated Relevant Criteria (CRI) that uses indicators based on the intensity, extent, duration, reversibility and incidence of the impacts (Buroz Castillo, 1998; Neuberger-Cywiak, 2001). The indicators are quantitatively assessed according to the scale shown in Table 4.
Construction Stage | Operation Stage |
(i) Site Cleaning and Clearing. (ii) Construction camp installation. (iii) Loan material explotation. (iv) Loan material transportation. (v) Excavation and removal of material. (vi) PVC pipes and plastic fillers transport. (vii) Concrete elements casting. (viii) Signage. | (i) Manhole maintenance. (ii) System treatment process control. (iii) Maintenance of system treatment processes. (iv) Residual sludge collection. (v) Activated sludge drying. (vi) Residual sludge disposal. |
Indicator | Criteria | Value |
Intensity | - | 1-10 |
Duration | Long (>5 years) | 10 |
Extent | Generalized | 10 |
Reversibility | Irreversible | 10 |
Incidence | High (> 50 %) | 10 |
According to the CRI method, Eq. (5) determines the impact magnitude ($M$) of the activities planned for the construction and operation stages. Finally, Eq. (6) allowed us to estimate the Environmental Index Value ($E I V$) of each activity corresponding to the construction and operation stage, and to identify those that generate impacts on a Low (0-3), Medium (4-7) and High (8-10) scale.
Finally, the study included the SWOT analysis (Leigh, 2010), which considered two main aspects: i) the current socioeconomic reality of the study area and its impact on the conservation of the paramo, ii) the technical proposal of this study to address the health problems of the community, and iii) the need to rethink community socioeconomic development activities through participatory approaches that promote migration to ecotourism as an alternative that meets the economic needs of the community and promotes compliance in the conservation of this type of sensitive ecosystem. For the analysis, the main tool was a focus group (Kitzinger, 1994) composed of experts in water management and the sustainable use of resources, community members, and representatives of the community cheese factory. In total, eight people participated and were selected based on their experience in resource management from a community and academic research perspective, as well as the openness received by the population and their interest in participating in the study. The analysis made it possible to define strategies to promote tourism development by considering four key aspects: i) location, ii) community characteristics, iii) sustainable development, and iv) experiences.
3. Results
The Yacubiana commune is between 3,555 and 3,614 meters above sea level, where low temperatures predominate. Residents point out that the name Yacubiana comes from the Kichwa language: yacu (water) and ubiana (drink); thus, Yacubiana means "drink water." Regarding the landscape, the commune has natural elevations allowing excursions and panoramic views of Chimborazo Volcano and the surrounding ecosystem. At higher altitudes, flora species are abundant (Yagual, Fan Palm, Fern, Guayusa, Guayacán, Cane Guadua, Romerillo, Mint, Chamomile, Laurel, among others). Similarly, the fauna has migrated to other areas due to human activity and is characterized mainly by rabbits, wolves, quinde, deer, armadillos, squirrels, owls, and curiquingues (a bird characteristic of the Andes). From a geological perspective, the study area primarily comprises the Pisayambo Volcanic Formation, which includes, within its lithology, andesites, agglomerates, lava flows, tuffs, and pyroclastic deposits. Natural and cultivated pastures are abundant, so the presence of sheep, pigs, and cattle is familiar. The community cheese factory uses part of the milk obtained from cattle, which produces 260 kilos of cheese per day, which is sold in different parts of the country. Agriculture is also the primary income source, with the predominant crops being potatoes, corn, beans, oca, legumes, wheat, barley, and other crops (Figure 3).
The surveys conducted on the inhabitants offer information on the conditions of the service and coverage of water in the community, as well as the current sanitation system (Figure 4). In general, water for human consumption comes from springs and does not receive prior treatment, whereas wastewater ends up in unlined septic tanks, which causes contamination in the subsoil.
As part of the operational plan for Yacubiana's economic development, local authorities plan to invest in tourism infrastructure that will accommodate an average of 55 people (floating population) and offer tourist packages to promote the city's natural and geological wealth. For a 10-year design period, the study carried out the population projection using the arithmetic, geometric and exponential approaches. The geometric method shows a better fit concerning the natural population growth, according to Pearson's R2 coefficient (Figure 5); however, since this is a rural community, arithmetic method values were averaged so that by 2031 the design population will be 555 inhabitants. Considering the commune's expansion plans, the floating population will increase by 55 inhabitants, resulting in a final design population of 610.
The analysis determined that the community cheese factory input is equivalent to 1950 inhabitants by applying the criterion of population equivalent to estimate the industry contribution based on the pollutant load (CC) (Table 5).
Q [l/s] | BOD5 [mg/l] | CC [kg/day] | CCp [kg/day*hab] | Population Equivalent |
0.62 | 2179 | 117 | 0.06 | 1950 |
The number of equivalent population, added to the 610 inhabitants obtained from the population projection, represents 2560 inhabitants. Therefore, according to local regulations, the community requires a Type IIb excreta disposal service level, which involves implementing a sanitary sewerage system. Additionally, for small communities located in a predominantly cold climate (less than 10°), regulations recommend a supply of 62 [l/hab/day]. However, considering that the endowment grows by 1 [l/hab/day] for each year of the design period, the final endowment was equal to 72 [l/hab/day].
According to the results obtained from evaluating alternatives with the Likert scale, considering the respective restrictions, the proposal for an unconventional sewerage system scored 51. In contrast, for the treatment system, the trickling filter had a score of 29, which implies that both proposals are the most appropriate (Table 6 and Table 7).
Restrictions Criteria | Conventional Sewerage | Simplified Sewerage | Dry Toilets | |
Social | Bad odors formations | 5 | 5 | 1 |
Presence of insects/pests | 5 | 5 | 1 | |
Pedestrian accident risks | 3 | 2 | 4 | |
Community participation | 5 | 3 | 1 | |
Interruptions of vehicle traffic | 1 | 4 | 5 | |
Technical | Standardization, Regulations | 5 | 3 | 1 |
Qualified personnel | 5 | 3 | 4 | |
Environmental | Flora and fauna destruction | 4 | 5 | 3 |
Risks of aquifers alterations | 4 | 3 | 2 | |
Dust generation | 2 | 3 | 4 | |
Economic | Construction costs | 2 | 5 | 4 |
Equipment and machinery costs | 1 | 4 | 5 | |
Implementation costs | 1 | 3 | 5 | |
Operation and maintenance costs | 1 | 3 | 2 | |
Total | 44 | 51 | 42 | |
Restrictions Criteria | Trickling Filter | RBC | Peat Filter | |
Economic | Implementation | 2 | 1 | 3 |
Operation | 2 | 1 | 2 | |
Maintenance | 2 | 1 | 2 | |
Energy consumption | 2 | 1 | 3 | |
Eenvironmental | Potential for bad odors | 2 | 2 | 2 |
Potential for noise | 2 | 1 | 3 | |
Landscape integration degree | 1 | 1 | 3 | |
Sludge management | Sludge generation | 2 | 2 | 2 |
Sludge removal frequency | 2 | 1 | 2 | |
Biophysical conditions | Surface | 3 | 3 | 1 |
Low temperature | 3 | 2 | 2 | |
Change in flow/ pollutant load | Heavy pollution | 3 | 3 | 1 |
Change Flow adaption | 3 | 3 | 1 | |
Total | 29 | 22 | 27 | |
According to the calculated design flow rates, the proposed sewer system requires pipes of Ø200 to Ø300 mm for minimum and maximum flow rates of 1.60 to 2.79 l/s. The design allows flow velocities between 0.45 and 2.5 m/s to avoid problems associated with sedimentation and pipe erosion. Additionally, the velocities obtained meet the traction force criterion greater than 0.12 kg/cm2 for self-cleaning the pipe. Figure 6 shows the sewer system location, with a total length of 916.83 m, which connects to the treatment system at the lowest point of the topography, according to the contour lines.
The system comprises a screening channel/grit chamber, an Imhoff tank, a drying bed, and a trickling filter (Figure 7). Efforts were made to locate the treatment system in a low area so that the sewage system would work by gravity. The design flows for the sand remover and the TF correspond to the maximum hourly flow (4.12 l/s), while for the Imhoff tank, full daily use was used (8.29 m3/h).
The screening channel requires a screen to remove and extract coarse solids and prevent obstructions in the system. The grit chamber design considered a particle size of 0.005 cm to estimate its dimensions. With these dimensions, the hydraulic retention time in the system was equal to 2.18 minutes. The transition angle at the inlet and outlet of the desander was 12.5° (Figure 8).
The tank dimensions were obtained using maximum daily flow (QMD), including a sedimentation and digester zone (Figure 9). The total tank height was equal to 7.30 m, with a length of 4.50 m and a width of 3.40 m. Table 8 shows the removal percentages obtained from Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD5), reaching removal percentages of 47% and 28%, respectively.
Pollutant | Inflow | Outflow | Removal |
TSS [mg/l] | 198 | 104.94 | 47% |
BOD5 [mg/l] | 237.5 | 171 | 28% |
According to the calculations, the drying beds obtain a digested sludge daily volume of 171.53 l/day. In contrast, the sludge volume that must be extracted is 13.04 l/day. The system requires an implantation area of 16.30 m2, so the drying bed dimensions are 4.0 × 4.1 m. The drying bed bottom contains a geotextile that rests on a filter medium made up of coarse sand and another gravel layer of 0.15 cm each (Figure 10).
Depending on the contaminant load and the filter medium (plastic rosettes to increase the contact surface), the analysis considered a recirculation rate (RC) equal to four, which reduces the BOD5 concentration to a value of 98.27 mg/l. Additionally, with a treatability constant (k) of 0.17 and an expected BOD5 concentration of 80 mg/l at the system outlet, the circular TF had a diameter of 3.10 m and an arm rotation speed of 2.36 revolutions per minute. Figure 11 shows treatment system details and its dimensions, respectively. Upon entering the trickling filter system, the flow from the Imhoff tank reduced BOD5 concentration by 53% (Table 9). Finally, the proposed system achieved an expected removal of 52% and 68% of the TSS and BOD5, respectively (Table 10).
Pollutant | Inflow | Outflow | Removal |
TSS [mg/l] | 104.94 | 104.94 | - |
BOD5 [mg/l] | 171 | 80 | 53% |
Pollutant | Inflow | Outflow | Removal | Regulation | Comply |
TSS [mg/l] | 220 | 104.94 | 52.3% | 130 | ok |
BOD5 [mg/l] | 250 | 80 | 68% | 100 | ok |
The environmental study considered a series of factors that could alter the air, soil, water, and biota properties, as well as the socio-economic conditions of the commune during the construction and operation stages. The factors directly or indirectly affected are detailed below:
- Soil (S): Quality (1) erosion (2) and waste generation (3).
- Air (A): Dust levels (4) and noise levels (5).
- Water (W): Surface drainage system (6) and surface and groundwater quality (7).
- Biotic (B): Terrestrial biota (8).
- Socioeconomic (SE): Occupational health (9), public health (10), economic activity (11) and landscape degradation (12).
During the construction phase, the EIV identified that clearing, excavation and removal of materials would cause medium-level impacts in the study area. However, when analyzing it by factors, it can be seen that: a) air is the most affected environmental component, b) in the socioeconomic part, measures should be sought for public and occupational health care, and c) soil quality would also be affected in this phase (Table 11). On the other hand, the operation and maintenance phase would impact the environment mainly with the collection and sludge disposal activities, affecting primarily the soil, water and socioeconomic aspects (Table 12).
Construction Stage Activities | S | A | W | B | SE | Average | |||||||
(1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | (7) | (8) | (9) | (10) | (11) | (12) | ||
Site Cleaning and Clearing. | 8 | 6 | 3 | 7 | 7 | 2 | 0 | 4 | 8 | 4 | 0 | 3 | 4 |
Construction camp installation | 5 | 2 | 5 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 6 | 0 | 6 | 4 | 3 |
Loan material explotation | 9 | 7 | 0 | 8 | 7 | 0 | 1 | 5 | 6 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 4 |
Loan material transportation | 0 | 0 | 5 | 8 | 7 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 5 | 0 | 2 |
Excavation and removal of material | 6 | 4 | 2 | 8 | 8 | 3 | 3 | 4 | 8 | 3 | 5 | 0 | 5 |
PVC pipes and plastic fillers transport | 0 | 0 | 0 | 7 | 7 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 |
Concrete elements casting | 0 | 0 | 6 | 5 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 7 | 0 | 2 |
Sinage | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 6 | 7 | 0 | 0 | 1 |
Average | 4 | 2 | 3 | 5 | 5 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 5 | 2 | 3 | 1 | |
Operation Stage Activities | S | A | W | B | SE | Average | |||||||
(1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | (7) | (8) | (9) | (10) | (11) | (12) | ||
Manhole maintenance | 5 | 0 | 5 | 0 | 5 | 0 | 4 | 0 | 6 | 5 | 2 | 2 | 3 |
System treatment process control | 0 | 3 | 6 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 0 | 4 | 0 | 2 |
Maintenance of system treatment | 0 | 3 | 7 | 0 | 4 | 0 | 8 | 5 | 6 | 5 | 4 | 1 | 4 |
Residual sludge collection | 3 | 3 | 8 | 1 | 4 | 0 | 5 | 6 | 9 | 0 | 5 | 3 | 4 |
Activated sludge drying | 0 | 0 | 7 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 6 | 0 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 2 |
Residual sludge disposal | 8 | 2 | 6 | 0 | 2 | 2 | 6 | 8 | 6 | 6 | 5 | 7 | 5 |
Average | 3 | 2 | 7 | 0 | 3 | 0 | 6 | 4 | 6 | 3 | 3 | 3 | |
Through the SWOT analysis, the study identified the rural commune's main SWOT. In general, the analysis of internal aspects reflects that the community has a representative natural and geological wealth of the area, with economic activities represented by agriculture, livestock, and artisan cheese production. However, the problems associated with the basic infrastructure (roads, accommodation, and health centres) and the existing sanitation system affect the well-being of the population and the conservation of ecosystems.
On the other hand, the external aspects analysis allows us to identify the potential of a community to achieve sustainable community development using natural and geological wealth, which is strengthened by the sanitation system implementation that serves as an example at the national, local, regional, and international levels to promote a circular water economy. However, government support is a conditioning factor threatening a community’s potential.
Strengths
- Sites of geological and natural interest for geotourism.
- National and international scope for artisanal cheese production.
- Agricultural development.
- Natural value for its diversity in flora and fauna.
Weaknesses
- Limited basic services.
- Limited financial resources.
- Inadequate sanitation system.
- Contaminate water sources due to wastewater and livestock.
Opportunities
- Acquisition of international funds to implement a sanitation system.
- Treated wastewater reuse for circular economy and protection of Andean paramo.
- Development of infrastructure to promote community tourism.
- Conservation of cultural identity.
Threats
- Tourism competitiveness of nearby areas.
- Lack of municipal support.
- Climate emergency will influence the water resources availability.
- Migration of young population.
This analysis proposes strategies to promote tourism development based on four key axes: location, sustainable development, community characteristics, and experience (Table 13). Specifically, the proposals of this study focus on the tourist infrastructure adequacy, the conditioning of natural and geological interest sites, sustainable management of residual water, and the community-academy interaction for the development of projects that allow solving the different problems from the environmental, social, educational, economic, and political viewpoints.
Axes | Strategies |
Sustainable Development | 1. Implement the proposed sanitation system to properly manage wastewater. |
2. Implement alternative economic activities that include ecotourism and geotourism. | |
3. Conduct the survey and evaluation of sites of geological interest with potential for geosites. | |
4. Implement a tertiary purification system for effective water reuse. | |
Location | 5. Carry out a project to adapt road and tourist infrastructure (community hotel, restaurant, health center). |
6. Propose tourist routes complemented by peripheral sites with geological, cultural or natural wealth. | |
7. Create plans to disseminate natural and geological wealth through social networks and academia. | |
Experiences | 8. Implement guides for different points of community and tourist interest. |
9. Install interpretive panels with historical, cultural, natural and geological data. | |
10. Promote social networks to develop forums that allow people to learn about the culture of the community. | |
11. Train staff for technical visits to community wastewater management. | |
Community features | 12. Promote projects to attract national and international funds to improve tourist sites. |
13. Promote community participation in environmental education programs and sustainable water management. | |
14. Improve access to education with an emphasis on the conservation of cultural and natural resources. | |
15. Strengthen local governance through community inclusion in decision-making. |
4. Discussion
The proposed methodological approach addresses the problems associated with wastewater management in rural communities located in sensitive ecosystems, where the search for solutions must have a comprehensive approach within the framework of the SDGs. The Yacubiana case reflects the reality of many rural communities that lack an adequate disposal system for the final liquid waste. According to the surveys carried out in the community (Figure 3), there is a low level of environmental awareness and action regarding wastewater management. Of the 81% of the population with a sanitary installation corresponding to septic tanks, only 3% have performed maintenance on the system at least once, representing a potential risk to people's health and the conservation of the natural environment in rural communities. This health problem highlights the need to improve sanitation conditions in vulnerable communities (Nasim et al., 2022).
The study evaluated three alternatives for wastewater transport (Table 7). The unconventional simplified sewerage system is better adapted to the terrain conditions, requiring fewer deep excavations and using fewer pipes compared to a conventional system (Yap et al., 2023). This reduces the costs associated with its implementation, making it more convenient in areas with low population density (Bakalian et al., 1994; Hawkins et al., 2013). The non-conventional simplified sewerage system covers a length of 917 m, with pipes of Ø200 to Ø300 mm diameter and a capacity of 2.90 l/s. Although sewerage systems are not commonly used in rural areas due to their low population density (Novotný et al., 2018; Xie et al., 2022), the initial cheese industry contribution in the study area, in terms of equivalent population (1950 inhabitants), makes its implementation feasible. However, it is essential to highlight that the designed system requires periodic cleaning to avoid obstructions when there is not enough water for washing.
The wastewater treatment system for the study area considered three alternatives (Table 8), of which the rotating biological contactors were discarded because they experience a decrease in their performance when operating in environments with low temperatures, and the energy consumption is high (Waqas et al., 2023). Regarding peat filters, it is required that the water table be deep enough to avoid leaks into water bodies and contamination (Kennedy & Geel, 2000); however, the paramos usually have a water table close to the surface, which restricts their application.
Therefore, the optimal alternative for the conditions analyzed corresponds to a trickling filter, which, according to the proposed design, is complemented by a sand trap and an Imhoff tank. This system removes 47% of TSS and 68% of BOD5, complying with the quality standards of local regulations (Ministerio del Ambiente Agua y Transición Ecológica, 2015). This type of wastewater treatment systems promotes the inhabitant's well-being and environmental protection, as reported by other studies (Rehman et al., 2021; Sehar & Naz, 2016). However, monitoring the treated water quality is necessary to ensure that the treated effluent does not represent a potential risk to water sources.
The resulting effluent can be used in reforestation and crop irrigation programs in controlled areas, which would reduce water extraction and improve agricultural productivity without the need for additional fertilizers (e.g., Carballo et al., 2019; Morante-Carballo et al., 2024). The literature review presented by Singh (2021) shows the potential contribution of fertilizers to the soil with different treated wastewater amounts. For example, an irrigation application of 4000 m3/ha, with a wastewater concentration of 18–60 mg/L, would contribute an equivalent of 64–248 kg/ha of nitrogen. Similarly, a concentration of 4–66 mg/L would represent 276 kg/ha of potassium to the soil, and a concentration of 6–23 mg/L would be equivalent to up to 96 kg/ha of phosphorus. Another helpful element is the sludge generated in the process, which is stabilized in drying beds and could later be used as fertilizer for agricultural activities (Aleisa et al., 2021). This approach promotes the circular economy by converting waste into valuable resources and optimizing the use of water and nutrients.
Addressing the sanitation problem in a rural community located in an area of natural importance and vulnerable to anthropic activity represents an indicator of SDG fulfilment, improving people's well-being and quality of life with a focus on environmental care (Molina et al., 2018). According to Obaideen et al. (2022), implementing sanitation systems leads to the fulfilment of SDG 6, which has a transversal impact on achieving the other SDGs. The internal and external aspects of the evaluation of the community (SWOT analysis) allowed us to define a set of strategies for sustainable community development with an ecotourism and conservation approach, of which three essential aspects are highlighted:
Financial and technical support from local governments for implementing infrastructure allows for more excellent basic services coverage (Schmidt et al., 2019). The need for national and international alliances with non-profit organizations (NPOs) to finance community projects related to the circular economy of water and sustainable tourism is highlighted.
Community solidarity habits can be critical objectives to achieve economic and social development through a model based on community tourism (Đurkin & Perić, 2017; Ruiz-Ballesteros, 2011). These types of practices can include i) artisanal cheese production, an activity replicated by peripheral communities (Salinas de Guaranda); ii) implementing tourist routes that integrate natural, cultural and geological value; and iii) projects for effective water reuse in reforestation plans.
Community-academia interaction to develop studies that address the environmental, social and economic needs of the community. This allows for proposing solutions that promote equity and sustainability and promote a greater understanding of local priorities and needs to obtain adequate solutions (Carrión-Mero et al., 2021).
The proposal can be replicated in other low-density localities where the area's geomorphology limits space availability. Larger populations may require more complex sewage and wastewater treatment systems, with higher investment, operation, and training costs. Other treatment alternatives using wetlands may be more common in rural areas because they are economically and environmentally friendly; however, they require considerable land area, relatively flat topography, and impermeable soil (Agunwamba, 2001; Mahapatra et al., 2022). Protecting water sources through a sanitation system promotes the development of ecotourism, which is a viable option for developing small communities and preserving their culture. However, some communities may be reluctant to change their usual practices due to a lack of knowledge. In this context, academic support becomes essential, as their participation through extension projects can provide them with tools to make the proposal sustainable (Mancini et al., 2022; Wong et al., 2025).
Regarding the study limitations, trickling filters allow for adequate wastewater treatment; however, at low temperatures, additional measures must be implemented to prevent the freezing of the filter media, as this delays the organic matter degradation by bacteria, thereby increasing the clogging probability (Scholz, 2016). Another limitation is that the proposed design considers wastewater characterization based on typical values, which do not necessarily reflect the actual conditions in Yacubiana. To implement this sanitation project in the community, it is recommended that wastewater characterization studies be conducted for the community and the cheese factory to adjust the proposed design and implement tertiary treatment systems that achieve greater removal (Mosquera et al., 2023; Tortajada, 2020).
Finally, future research could include identifying and evaluating sites of geological interest that can be developed as geosites. This represents a path for the development of guided tours, adding tourist and scientific value to the area, as suggested by Carrión-Mero et al. (2020). Furthermore, due to the dependence on agricultural activities, it is necessary to investigate sustainable practices that promote soil conservation and the efficient use of water resources. Dialogue between stakeholders is essential to avoid conflicts and design an action plan for the transition to innovative systems (Ramírez-Gómez et al., 2025; Robineau et al., 2010).
5. Conclusions
Protecting water in sensitive areas such as the Andean paramo is a national and regional priority to conserve water resources and promote proper management. This research proposes strategies for protecting Andean moors in a rural commune in Ecuador by implementing a sanitary system that integrates simplified sewerage and a wastewater treatment system through a trickling filter. The proposed solution is replacing the existing sanitation system consisting of septic tanks, which represent a risk to ecosystem conservation, as well as impacts on local health and the tourism development deterioration of the sector.
The designed system guarantees the adequate collection and transport of wastewater with a pipe network with a capacity of 2.8 l/s according to the population density and the study area conditions. The designed purification system would achieve total removals of 47% of TSS and 68% of BOD5, allowing a safe discharge into the environment. However, its proper functioning depends mainly on periodic maintenance work (sludge removal and filter washing).
This health management type provides a favourable environment for the sector's socio-economic development, especially tourism, with future tourist infrastructure implementation and improved accessibility. In this context, the SWOT analysis mainly highlights the community's strategic location near other international tourist reference points and the geological, natural and cultural wealth as the main tourist attraction. However, it is essential to highlight the need to strengthen government support, financing and community participation.
The methodological approach used in this study is a replicable tool for Andean paramo communities to address problems or needs related to sanitation management for ecosystem conservation, local development, and compliance with SDGs 6 and 11. The originality and contribution of this research lie in its focus on wastewater management and the promotion of ecotourism as a sustainable alternative for socioeconomic development. The practical recommendations presented here are aligned with paramo conservation objectives and are expected to contribute to decision-makers in the management of the Andean territory, a vital ecosystem for water regulation and biodiversity in the region. Future research could explore the system's solid waste management and implementation of tertiary purification systems that guarantee safe water reuse.
Conceptualization, B.M.-S., F.M.-C., S.S.-Z., and M.A.-A.; methodology, B.M.-S., F.M.-C., S.S.-Z., M.A.-A., B.Á.-Z. and F.V.-P.; software, S.S.-Z., M.A.-A., B.Á.-Z. and F.V.-P.; validation, B.M.-S. and F.M.-C.; formal analysis, B.M.-S., F.M.-C., S.S.-Z., and M.A.-A.; investigation, B.M.-S., F.M.-C., S.S.-Z., M.A.-A., B.Á.-Z. and F.V.-P.; resources, B.M.-S. and F.M.-C.; data curation, S.S.-Z., M.A.-A., B.Á.-Z. and F.V.-P.; writing—original draft preparation, S.S.-Z., M.A.-A., B.Á.-Z. and F.V.-P.; writing—review and editing, S.S.-Z., M.A.-A., B.Á.-Z. and F.V.-P.; visualization, B.M.-S. and F.M.-C.; supervision, B.M.-S. and F.M.-C.; project administration, B.M.-S. and F.M.-C.; funding acquisition, B.M.-S. and F.M.-C.. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.
The data used to support the research findings are available from the corresponding author upon request.
We thank the residents of Yacubiana for their openness and interest in this study.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
SWOT | Strengths, Opportunities, Weaknesses and Threats |
CC | Pollutant load, kg/day |
CCp | Contributing load per person, kg/day*hab |
BOD5 | Biochemical Oxygen Demand, mg/l |
TSS | Total Suspended Solids, mg/l |
CRI | Integrated Relevant Criteria |
EIA | Environmental Impact Assessment |
TF | Trickling filter |
EIV | Environmental Index Value |
Ø | Pipe diameter |
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